week 1. introduction grs lx 700 language acquisition and linguistic theory

Week 1. IntroductionWeek 1. Introduction

GRS LX 700GRS LX 700Language Language

Acquisition andAcquisition andLinguistic TheoryLinguistic Theory

Language is really Language is really complicatedcomplicated

1)1) Frasier threw Frasier threw out out Martin’s chair.Martin’s chair.2)2) Frasier threw Martin’s chair Frasier threw Martin’s chair outout..3)3) Daphne walked Daphne walked out out the door.the door.4)4) *Daphne walked the door out.*Daphne walked the door out.

5)5) What did Roz say Niles bought?What did Roz say Niles bought?6)6) What did Roz sayWhat did Roz say that that Niles bought?Niles bought?7)7) Who did Roz say bought an espresso doppio?Who did Roz say bought an espresso doppio?8)8) *Who did Roz say *Who did Roz say thatthat bought an espresso bought an espresso

doppio?doppio?

Language is really Language is really complicatedcomplicated

9)9) HisHis mother thinks mother thinks BillBill is a genius.is a genius.

10)10) HeHe thinks thinks BillBill is a genius, too.is a genius, too.

11)11) I asked Mary to buy I asked Mary to buy rumrum..

12)12) What What did you ask Mary to buy ?did you ask Mary to buy ?

13)13) I saw the book about I saw the book about snakes snakes on the table.on the table.

14)14) **WhatWhat did you see the book about on the did you see the book about on the table?table?

Yet people know this Yet people know this stuff…stuff…

Adult native speakers uniformly Adult native speakers uniformly and overwhelmingly agree.and overwhelmingly agree.

To know English is to have To know English is to have knowledge of (how to determine) knowledge of (how to determine) which sentences are possible and which sentences are possible and which are impossible in English.which are impossible in English.

How one comes to have this How one comes to have this knowledge is going to be our knowledge is going to be our primary focus.primary focus.

Consider learning thisConsider learning this

1)1) Frasier threw Frasier threw outout Martin’s chairMartin’s chair..

2)2) Frasier threw Frasier threw Martin’s chairMartin’s chair outout..

Prepositions can go on either Prepositions can go on either side of the object? side of the object?


1)1) Frasier threw Frasier threw outout Martin’s chairMartin’s chair..

2)2) Frasier threw Frasier threw Martin’s chair Martin’s chair outout..

Prepositions can go on either Prepositions can go on either side of the object? side of the object? BzztBzzt!!

3)3) Daphne walked Daphne walked outout the doorthe door..

4)4) *Daphne walked the door *Daphne walked the door outout..


5)5) What did Roz think Niles bought?What did Roz think Niles bought?

6)6) What did Roz think What did Roz think thatthat Niles Niles bought?bought?

Ok, Ok, thatthat is optional? is optional?


5)5) What did Roz think Niles bought?What did Roz think Niles bought?

6)6) What did Roz think What did Roz think thatthat Niles Niles bought?bought?

Ok, Ok, thatthat is optional? is optional? BzztBzzt!!

7)7) Who did Roz say bought an espresso Who did Roz say bought an espresso doppio?doppio?

8)8) *Who did Roz say *Who did Roz say thatthat bought an bought an espresso doppio?espresso doppio?

Consider learning thisConsider learning this9)9) HisHis mother thinks mother thinks BillBill is a genius. is a genius. HeHe//hishis can be can be BillBill even if even if hehe precedes precedes

BillBill??

11)11) I asked Mary to buy I asked Mary to buy rumrum..12)12) WhatWhat did you ask Mary to buy ?did you ask Mary to buy ? To make a question, move the To make a question, move the whwh-word -word

to the front, invert auxiliary. Right? to the front, invert auxiliary. Right? 13)13) I saw the book about I saw the book about snakessnakes on the table.on the table.

Consider learning thisConsider learning this9)9) HisHis mother thinks mother thinks Bill Bill is a genius.is a genius. HeHe//hishis can be can be BillBill even if even if hehe precedes precedes

BillBill? ? BzztBzzt!!10)10) He He thinks thinks John John is a genius, too.is a genius, too.

11)11) I asked Mary to buy I asked Mary to buy rumrum..12)12) WhatWhat did you ask Mary to buy ?did you ask Mary to buy ? To make a question, move the To make a question, move the whwh-word to -word to

the front, invert auxiliary. Right? the front, invert auxiliary. Right? BzztBzzt!! 13)13) I saw the book about I saw the book about snakessnakes on the table.on the table.14)14) **WhatWhat did you see the book about on the did you see the book about on the

table?table?

GrammarGrammar People eventually end up with a People eventually end up with a systemsystem with with

which they can produce (and rate) which they can produce (and rate) sentences: a sentences: a grammargrammar..

Even if a native speaker of English has never Even if a native speaker of English has never heard either of these sentences before, s/he heard either of these sentences before, s/he knows which one is possible in English and knows which one is possible in English and which one isn’t:which one isn’t:

15)15)Eight very adept sea lions played trombones.Eight very adept sea lions played trombones.16)16)Eight sea lions very adept trombones played.Eight sea lions very adept trombones played.

How do people know How do people know this?this?

Every native speaker of English knows these Every native speaker of English knows these things.things.

Nobody who speaks English as a first language Nobody who speaks English as a first language was explicitly taught (growing up) “was explicitly taught (growing up) “You can’t You can’t question a subject in a complement embedded question a subject in a complement embedded with with thatthat” or “” or “You can’t use a proper name if it’s You can’t use a proper name if it’s c-commanded by something coindexed with itc-commanded by something coindexed with it.”.”

Trying to use any simple kind of general learning Trying to use any simple kind of general learning principle based on (analogy to) the sentences principle based on (analogy to) the sentences you get seems almost sure to lead you astray.you get seems almost sure to lead you astray.

That’s the setupThat’s the setup

Language involves a complex Language involves a complex grammar.grammar.

Adults end up with knowledge of this Adults end up with knowledge of this grammar, quite uniformly.grammar, quite uniformly.

Children seem to go through advancing Children seem to go through advancing stages of language sophistication; they stages of language sophistication; they are learning, the end result being the are learning, the end result being the adult language system.adult language system.

Next question: Next question: What is the nature of What is the nature of the children’s learning?the children’s learning?

LinguistsLinguists

As As linguistslinguists trying to figure out the trying to figure out the grammatical system of a language, we…grammatical system of a language, we… Look at which sentences are grammaticalLook at which sentences are grammatical Look at which sentences are ungrammaticalLook at which sentences are ungrammatical Compare them to describe generalizations about Compare them to describe generalizations about

what the crucial factors are differentiating the what the crucial factors are differentiating the grammatical from the ungrammatical.grammatical from the ungrammatical.

Check the predictions of the hypothesized Check the predictions of the hypothesized generalization by looking at more complex generalization by looking at more complex sentences.sentences.

Are Are kidskids just little linguists? just little linguists?

Kids are not just little Kids are not just little linguists.linguists.

*What did you see the book about on the *What did you see the book about on the table?table?

*Who did Mary say that bought coffee?*Who did Mary say that bought coffee? Eight very adept sea lions played trombones.Eight very adept sea lions played trombones.

Linguists’ theories:Linguists’ theories: built by considering both built by considering both grammatical grammatical andand ungrammaticalungrammatical sentences sentences (often of a fairly complex type).(often of a fairly complex type).

Kids:Kids: Don’t hear ungrammatical sentences, Don’t hear ungrammatical sentences, nor even all of the grammatical sentences nor even all of the grammatical sentences (often of a simpler type).(often of a simpler type).

So how do they do it?So how do they do it? One hypothesis holds suggests that parents One hypothesis holds suggests that parents

actually help kids along (though not actually help kids along (though not consciously).consciously).

It’s well known that people seem to It’s well known that people seem to instinctively talk to little kids in kind of a instinctively talk to little kids in kind of a weird way; exaggerated intonation, simpler weird way; exaggerated intonation, simpler words, more repetition. “Baby talk” or as it is words, more repetition. “Baby talk” or as it is sometimes known, “sometimes known, “MothereseMotherese”.”.

Many have entertained the idea that this Many have entertained the idea that this simpler, more carefully articulated, speech simpler, more carefully articulated, speech might guide kids along the path of language might guide kids along the path of language acquisition.acquisition.

Some properties of Some properties of “Motherese”“Motherese”

Slower speech, longer pausesSlower speech, longer pauses Higher pitch, greater pitch rangeHigher pitch, greater pitch range Exaggerated intonation and stressExaggerated intonation and stress More varied loudnessMore varied loudness Fewer disfluenciesFewer disfluencies More restricted vocabularyMore restricted vocabulary More rephrasingsMore rephrasings More repetitionsMore repetitions Shorter, less complex utterancesShorter, less complex utterances More imperatives and questionsMore imperatives and questions Fewer complex (multiclause) sentencesFewer complex (multiclause) sentences

Does “Motherese” drive Does “Motherese” drive acquisition?acquisition?

Initially tempting, but no.Initially tempting, but no. If “Motherese” were crucial for If “Motherese” were crucial for

acquisition, it must be available to all acquisition, it must be available to all language acquirers, universally.language acquirers, universally.

Several documented cultures don’t even Several documented cultures don’t even speak to the kids until they reach speak to the kids until they reach linguistic sophistication. linguistic sophistication. (Of course, (Of course, they’re exposed to language in the they’re exposed to language in the environment, but not dircted at them in environment, but not dircted at them in “Motherese”)“Motherese”)

Does “Motherese” drive Does “Motherese” drive acquisition?acquisition?

If you give a 4-month old the choice of If you give a 4-month old the choice of whether to listen to “Motherese” or to whether to listen to “Motherese” or to normal adult-directed speech, the kid normal adult-directed speech, the kid will choose to listen to “Motherese”…will choose to listen to “Motherese”…

……so it is quite likely that “Motherese” so it is quite likely that “Motherese” forms a significant part of the PLD for forms a significant part of the PLD for the kid, but it can’t be the kid, but it can’t be necessarynecessary for for successful language acquisition.successful language acquisition.

Simpler isn’t really Simpler isn’t really betterbetter

Linguists look to Linguists look to complex sentencescomplex sentences to to differentiate between predictions of different differentiate between predictions of different hypotheses about how the grammar works.hypotheses about how the grammar works.

Generally, prior to considering complex Generally, prior to considering complex sentences, the data sentences, the data underdetermines the underdetermines the grammargrammar; there are (at least) two systems ; there are (at least) two systems compatible with the data observed so far.compatible with the data observed so far.

If linguists need to look to complex sentences If linguists need to look to complex sentences to figure out the intricacies of the rules to figure out the intricacies of the rules (which all adult native speakers seem to end (which all adult native speakers seem to end up with), up with), kids should need this information kids should need this information tootoo..

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

Kids need to know the grammatical Kids need to know the grammatical system by the time they are adults.system by the time they are adults.

Kids hear grammatical sentencesKids hear grammatical sentences((positive evidencepositive evidence))

Kids are not told which sentences Kids are not told which sentences are ungrammaticalare ungrammatical((no negativeno negative evidenceevidence))

Let’s consider Let’s consider no negative no negative evidenceevidence further… further…

Negative evidenceNegative evidence

Negative evidence Negative evidence (information that a (information that a given sentence is ungrammatical)given sentence is ungrammatical) could could come in various conceivable forms.come in various conceivable forms. ““The sentence The sentence Bill a cookie ateBill a cookie ate is not a is not a

sentence in English, Timmy. No sentence sentence in English, Timmy. No sentence with SOV word order is.”with SOV word order is.”

Upon hearing Upon hearing Bill a cookie ateBill a cookie ate, an adult might, an adult might Offer negative reinforcementOffer negative reinforcement Not understandNot understand Look painedLook pained Rephrase the ungrammatical sentence Rephrase the ungrammatical sentence

grammaticallygrammatically

Kids Kids resistresist instruction… instruction…

McNeill (1966)McNeill (1966) Nobody don’t like me.Nobody don’t like me. No, say ‘nobody likes me.’No, say ‘nobody likes me.’ Nobody don’t like me.Nobody don’t like me.

[[repeats eight timesrepeats eight times]]

No, now listen carefully; say ‘nobody likes me.’No, now listen carefully; say ‘nobody likes me.’ Oh! Nobody don’t likes me.Oh! Nobody don’t likes me.


Braime (1971)Braime (1971) Want other one spoon, daddy.Want other one spoon, daddy. You mean, you want the other spoon.You mean, you want the other spoon. Yes, I want other one spoon, please Daddy.Yes, I want other one spoon, please Daddy. Can you say ‘the other spoon’?Can you say ‘the other spoon’? Other…one…spoonOther…one…spoon Say ‘other’Say ‘other’ OtherOther ‘‘Spoon’Spoon’ SpoonSpoon ‘‘Other spoon’Other spoon’ Other…spoon. Now give me other one Other…spoon. Now give me other one

spoon?spoon?


Cazden (1972) Cazden (1972) (observation attributed to Jean Berko (observation attributed to Jean Berko Gleason)Gleason)

My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we My teacher holded the baby rabbits and we patted them.patted them.

Did you say your teacher held the baby rabbits?Did you say your teacher held the baby rabbits? Yes.Yes. What did you say she did?What did you say she did? She holded the baby rabbits and we patted She holded the baby rabbits and we patted

them.them. Did you say she held them tightly?Did you say she held them tightly? No, she holded them loosely.No, she holded them loosely.

Negative evidence via Negative evidence via feedback?feedback?

Do kids get “implicit” negative Do kids get “implicit” negative evidence?evidence?

Do adults Do adults understandunderstand grammatical grammatical sentences and sentences and not understandnot understand ungrammatical ones?ungrammatical ones?

Do adults Do adults respond positivelyrespond positively to to grammatical sentences and grammatical sentences and negativelynegatively to to ungrammatical ones?ungrammatical ones?

Approval or Approval or comprehension?comprehension?

Brown & Hanlon (1970):Brown & Hanlon (1970): Adults understood Adults understood 42%42% of the grammatical of the grammatical

sentences.sentences. Adults understood Adults understood 47%47% of the ungrammatical of the ungrammatical

ones.ones.

Adults expressed approval after Adults expressed approval after 45%45% of the of thegrammatical sentences.grammatical sentences.

Adults expressed approval after Adults expressed approval after 45%45% of the of the ungrammatical sentences.ungrammatical sentences.

This doesn’t bode well for comprehension or approval This doesn’t bode well for comprehension or approval as a source of negative evidence for kids.as a source of negative evidence for kids.

Kids’ experience differsKids’ experience differs

Parents respond differentlyParents respond differently Eve & Sarah’s parents ask clarification Eve & Sarah’s parents ask clarification

questions after questions after ill-formedill-formed whwh-questions.-questions. Adam’s parents ask clarification after Adam’s parents ask clarification after

well-formedwell-formed whwh-questions…and after -questions…and after past tense past tense errorserrors..

How can kids figure out what How can kids figure out what correlates with grammaticality in correlates with grammaticality in theirtheir situation? situation?

Kids’ experience differsKids’ experience differs

Piedmont Carolinas: Heath (1983):Piedmont Carolinas: Heath (1983):Trackton adults do not see babies or Trackton adults do not see babies or

young children as suitable partners for young children as suitable partners for regular conversation…[U]nless they regular conversation…[U]nless they wish to issue a warning, give a wish to issue a warning, give a command, provide a recommendation, command, provide a recommendation, or engage the child in a teasing or engage the child in a teasing exchange,exchange, adults rarely address speech adults rarely address speech specifically to young childrenspecifically to young children..

Feedback Feedback disappearsdisappears

Adam and Sarah showed almost no Adam and Sarah showed almost no reply contingencies after age 4…reply contingencies after age 4…

But they still But they still mademade errors after age 4 errors after age 4

And they still stopped making those And they still stopped making those errors as adults (errors as adults (learning learning didn’t didn’t cease).cease).

Three possible types of Three possible types of feedbackfeedback

CompleteComplete:: consistent response, indicates consistent response, indicates unambiguously “grammatical” or unambiguously “grammatical” or “ungrammatical.”“ungrammatical.”

PartialPartial:: if there is a response, it indicates if there is a response, it indicates “grammatical” or “ungrammatical”“grammatical” or “ungrammatical”

NoisyNoisy:: response given to both response given to both grammatical and ungrammatical grammatical and ungrammatical sentences, but with different/detectible sentences, but with different/detectible frequencyfrequency..

Statistics (from Marcus Statistics (from Marcus 1993)1993)

Suppose response Suppose response RR occurs occurs 20%20% of the time of the time for ungrammatical sentences, for ungrammatical sentences, 12%12% of the of the time for grammatical sentences.time for grammatical sentences.

Kid gets response RKid gets response R to utterance U, there’s to utterance U, there’s a a 63%63% chance chance (20/32)(20/32) that U is that U is ungrammatical. ungrammatical. Guess: ungrammatical, Guess: ungrammatical, but 38% chance of being wrong.but 38% chance of being wrong.

Kid Kid doesn’tdoesn’t get response R get response R, 52% chance , 52% chance (88/168)(88/168) it’s grammatical. it’s grammatical. Guess: Guess: grammatical, but 48% chance of being grammatical, but 48% chance of being wrong.wrong.

Statistics (from Marcus Statistics (from Marcus 1993)1993)

Suppose response Suppose response RR occurs occurs 20%20% of the time of the time for ungrammatical sentences, for ungrammatical sentences, 12%12% of the of the time for grammatical sentences.time for grammatical sentences.

Suppose kid got response R to U, and is 63% Suppose kid got response R to U, and is 63% confident that U is ungrammatical—ok, but confident that U is ungrammatical—ok, but nowhere near good enough to build a nowhere near good enough to build a grammar.grammar.

This is a serious task, a kid’s going to want to This is a serious task, a kid’s going to want to be be suresure. Suppose kid is aiming for 99% . Suppose kid is aiming for 99% confidence confidence (adults make at most 1% speech (adults make at most 1% speech errors of the relevant kind—pretend this errors of the relevant kind—pretend this reflects 99% confidence)reflects 99% confidence)..

Lacking confidenceLacking confidence Based on R (20%-12% differential), they’d Based on R (20%-12% differential), they’d

have to repeat U have to repeat U 446446 times (and compile times (and compile feedback results) to reach a 99% confidence feedback results) to reach a 99% confidence level.level.

Based on various studies on noisy feedback, a Based on various studies on noisy feedback, a realistic range might be from realistic range might be from 8585 times times (for a (for a 35%-14% differential)35%-14% differential) to to 679679 times times (for a (for a 11.3%-6.3% differential)11.3%-6.3% differential)..

This sounds rather unlike what actually This sounds rather unlike what actually happens.happens.

In a way, it’s moot In a way, it’s moot anyway…anyway…

One of the striking things about child One of the striking things about child language is how few errors they actually language is how few errors they actually make.make.

For negative feedback to work, the kids have For negative feedback to work, the kids have to to make the errorsmake the errors (so that it can get the (so that it can get the negative response).negative response).

But they don’t make enough relevant kinds But they don’t make enough relevant kinds of errors to determine the complex grammar.of errors to determine the complex grammar.

Yes-no questionsYes-no questions

17)17) The man is here.The man is here.18)18) Is the man here?Is the man here?

Hypothesis 1:Hypothesis 1: Move the first Move the first isis (or modal, (or modal, auxiliary) to the front.auxiliary) to the front.

Hypothesis 2:Hypothesis 2: Move the first Move the first isis after the after the subject noun phrasesubject noun phrase to the front. to the front.

19)19) The man who is here is eating dinner.The man who is here is eating dinner.

Yes-no questionsYes-no questions

19)19) The man who is here is eating dinner.The man who is here is eating dinner.20)20) *Is the man who here is eating dinner? *Is the man who here is eating dinner? (*H1)(*H1)21)21) Is the man who is here eating dinner? Is the man who is here eating dinner? (√H2)(√H2)

No kid’s ever said (20) to mean (21), which would No kid’s ever said (20) to mean (21), which would have been necessary to distinguish hypotheses have been necessary to distinguish hypotheses 1 and 2… Why not?1 and 2… Why not?

It seems that kids don’t even It seems that kids don’t even entertainentertain Hypothesis Hypothesis 1.1.

And that’s fine, because it seems like Hypothesis 1 And that’s fine, because it seems like Hypothesis 1 is a kind of rule not found in is a kind of rule not found in anyany adult adult language. language.

Abstract principlesAbstract principles Principle CPrinciple C:: Nothing coreferential can c-Nothing coreferential can c-

command a proper name. command a proper name.

*He*Heii believes John believes Johnii’s teacher.’s teacher.

HisHisii teacher believes John teacher believes Johnii..

Study of adult grammar reveals that Study of adult grammar reveals that c-c-commandcommand is the appropriate abstract notion, is the appropriate abstract notion, defined on syntactic structures. defined on syntactic structures. But how do But how do kids learn about c-command? You can’t kids learn about c-command? You can’t hearhear c- c-command.command.

What’s more, study of adult grammar reveals What’s more, study of adult grammar reveals that Principle C holds in every languagethat Principle C holds in every language!!

Kids don’t make as many mistakes as would Kids don’t make as many mistakes as would be needed for hypothesis testing. be needed for hypothesis testing.

Kids seem to receive no relevant negative Kids seem to receive no relevant negative evidence while learning language anyway.evidence while learning language anyway.

Kids learn Kids learn fastfast.. Kids become adults with the grammatical Kids become adults with the grammatical

knowledge that pertains thereto (uniform, knowledge that pertains thereto (uniform, highly complex)highly complex)

Kids come to know abstract principles (like Kids come to know abstract principles (like Principle C) without access to evidence Principle C) without access to evidence determining them. In many cases, these determining them. In many cases, these principles are observed in all human principles are observed in all human languages. languages. “Poverty of the stimulus”“Poverty of the stimulus”

So, we’ve got…So, we’ve got…

Having language = being Having language = being humanhuman

A linguistic capacity is part of being human.A linguistic capacity is part of being human.

Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision system, humans have a language faculty.system, humans have a language faculty.

Specification of having arms instead of Specification of having arms instead of wings, etc., is somehow encoded wings, etc., is somehow encoded genetically.genetically.

Structure of the language faculty is Structure of the language faculty is predetermined, like the structure of the predetermined, like the structure of the vision system is.vision system is.

The language faculty (tightly) constrains The language faculty (tightly) constrains what kinds of languages a child can learn.what kinds of languages a child can learn.

=“=“Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar” (UG). ” (UG).

Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar

UG tightly constrains the learning process.UG tightly constrains the learning process. Study of Syntax, phonology, etc., is Study of Syntax, phonology, etc., is

generally trying to uncover properties of generally trying to uncover properties of Language, to specify what Language, to specify what kind kind of of languages a child can learn, to see what languages a child can learn, to see what kinds of restrictions UG places on kinds of restrictions UG places on language.language.

But kids don’t just enter the world speaking But kids don’t just enter the world speaking like adults—there’s a like adults—there’s a developmentdevelopment..

And, adults don’t all end up speaking the And, adults don’t all end up speaking the same language—there is same language—there is learninglearning..

Game PlanGame Plan

The goal of the first part of the course is The goal of the first part of the course is to discover what we can about UG, about to discover what we can about UG, about this language acquisition device, through this language acquisition device, through looking at first language development.looking at first language development.

What do kids know and when?What do kids know and when? How could How could they come to know these things?they come to know these things? What What have been some of the major discoveries have been some of the major discoveries concerning development of syntax?concerning development of syntax?

Coming up—L1AComing up—L1A

Formal learnabilityFormal learnabilityPrinciples and parametersPrinciples and parametersHow to set a parameterHow to set a parameterTriggers, subset principleTriggers, subset principle

Syntax at age 2Syntax at age 2Root clause nonfinite verbsRoot clause nonfinite verbsNull subjectsNull subjectsCase errorsCase errors

Theories of developmentTheories of developmentWeak and strong continuityWeak and strong continuityExperimental evidenceExperimental evidenceOptional Infinitives/ATOMOptional Infinitives/ATOM

Binding theoryHow early is Principle B?

PassivesHow early are passives?

MaturationDo some innate grammatical principles mature?

Wh-questionsProperties of development, implications for syntactic theory

Coming up—L2AComing up—L2A

L1A ≠ L2A? How so?L1A ≠ L2A? How so?Knowledge of languageKnowledge of language

Course of developmentCourse of development

Parameter settings?Parameter settings?

Critical period hypothesisCritical period hypothesisWindows of opportunityWindows of opportunity

““Access” and “Transfer”Access” and “Transfer”What are the effects of the L1 What are the effects of the L1

on the L2’ers knowledge?on the L2’ers knowledge?

What role does UG play in What role does UG play in L2A?L2A?

Experimental resultsCourse of developmentSensitivity to universal constraintsEffects of instruction

Other factorsMajor models

Vainikka & Young-Scholten, Krashen, White, Flynn, Schwartz & Sprouse, …

LearnabilityLearnability

The The Principles & Parameters modelPrinciples & Parameters model is is designed to address the learnability designed to address the learnability problem we faced:problem we faced: Languages are very complex.Languages are very complex. Languages differ (Languages differ (something something has to be has to be

learned).learned). Children get insufficient and variable Children get insufficient and variable

evidence to deduce the uniform rules of evidence to deduce the uniform rules of grammar they end up with.grammar they end up with.

Children have adult-like grammars Children have adult-like grammars relatively quickly.relatively quickly.

The proposed solution to the apparent paradox The proposed solution to the apparent paradox is to suppose that is to suppose that to a large extent all human to a large extent all human languages are the samelanguages are the same.. The grammatical The grammatical systems obey the same principles in all human systems obey the same principles in all human languages.languages.

UG Japanese

English

Principles and Principles and ParametersParameters

Languages differ, but only in highly limited Languages differ, but only in highly limited ways.ways. In the order between the verb and the object.In the order between the verb and the object. In whether the verb raises to tenseIn whether the verb raises to tense ……

UG Japanese

English


This reduces the task for the child This reduces the task for the child immensely—all that the kid needs to do is immensely—all that the kid needs to do is to determine from the input which setting to determine from the input which setting each of the parameters needs to have for each of the parameters needs to have for the language in his/her environment.the language in his/her environment.

UG Japanese

English


The standard pictureThe standard picture

The way this is usually drawn The way this is usually drawn schematically is like this. The schematically is like this. The Primary Primary Linguistic DataLinguistic Data (PLD)(PLD) serves as input to a serves as input to a Language Acquisition DeviceLanguage Acquisition Device (LAD) (LAD), which , which makes use of this information to produce a makes use of this information to produce a grammargrammar of the language being learned.of the language being learned.

LADPLD grammar

The standard pictureThe standard picture

This isolates the innately specified This isolates the innately specified language faculty into a single component language faculty into a single component in the picture.in the picture. The LAD contains (a The LAD contains (a specification for) all of the specification for) all of the principlesprinciples and and the the parametersparameters, and has a , and has a procedureprocedure for for going from PLD to parameter settings.going from PLD to parameter settings.

LADPLD grammar

We may be able to avoid confusion We may be able to avoid confusion later, though, if we differentiate the later, though, if we differentiate the innately provided system into its innately provided system into its conceptual components.conceptual components.

This is my rendition of a way to think This is my rendition of a way to think about UG, parameters, and LAD.about UG, parameters, and LAD.

LAD

PLDUG

SubjacencyBinding Theory

Modeling human Modeling human language capacitylanguage capacity

UG UG providesprovides the parameters the parameters and contains and contains the grammatical system the grammatical system (including the (including the principles, like Subjacency, Binding Theory, principles, like Subjacency, Binding Theory, etc.)etc.) that makes use of them. that makes use of them.

LAD LAD setssets the parameters the parameters based on the PLD. based on the PLD. Responsible for getting language to kids.Responsible for getting language to kids.

LAD

PLDUG



The idea behind this diagram is that UG is The idea behind this diagram is that UG is something like the something like the shape of language shape of language knowledgeknowledge.. Knowledge of language can only take a certain, Knowledge of language can only take a certain,

innately pre-specified “shape”.innately pre-specified “shape”. A system with this “shape” has certain properties, A system with this “shape” has certain properties,

among them Binding Theory, Subjacency, … the among them Binding Theory, Subjacency, … the Principles.Principles.

LAD

PLDUG



The The ParametersParameters are different ways in are different ways in which stored knowledge can conform to which stored knowledge can conform to the “shape” of UG.the “shape” of UG.

The The LADLAD is a system which analyzes the is a system which analyzes the PLD and PLD and setssets the parameters the parameters..

LAD

PLDUG



So two languages which differ with So two languages which differ with respect to one parameter setting might respect to one parameter setting might be represented kind of like this.be represented kind of like this. This is of course a cartoon view of things, This is of course a cartoon view of things,

but perhaps it might be useful later.but perhaps it might be useful later.

LanguageA Language

B



So what So what are are the Principles and Parameters?the Principles and Parameters? Good questionGood question!! —and that’s what —and that’s what

theoretical linguistics is all about.theoretical linguistics is all about. Since 1981, many principles and parameters Since 1981, many principles and parameters

have been proposed. As our understanding of have been proposed. As our understanding of language grows, new evidence comes to light, language grows, new evidence comes to light, and previous proposals are discarded in favor and previous proposals are discarded in favor of better motivated ones. It’s hard to keep a of better motivated ones. It’s hard to keep a current tally of “the principles we know of” current tally of “the principles we know of” because of the active nature of the field.because of the active nature of the field.


Some of the (proposed) Parameters that Some of the (proposed) Parameters that have received a fair amount of press are:have received a fair amount of press are: Bounding nodes for SubjacencyBounding nodes for Subjacency Binding domain for anaphors and pronounsBinding domain for anaphors and pronouns Verb-object orderVerb-object order Overt verb movement (V moves to tense)Overt verb movement (V moves to tense) Allowability of null subject (Allowability of null subject (propro) in tensed ) in tensed

clausesclauses

We’ll look at each of them in due course…We’ll look at each of them in due course…

Verb-object orderVerb-object orderThe parameter for The parameter for verb-object orderverb-object order (more (more

generally, the “generally, the “head parameterhead parameter” setting out ” setting out the order between Xthe order between X-theoretic head and -theoretic head and complement) comes out as:complement) comes out as:

Japanese:Japanese: Head-finalHead-final (X follows complement) (X follows complement) English:English: Head-initialHead-initial (X precedes (X precedes

complement).complement).

Figuring out which type the target language is Figuring out which type the target language is is often fairly straightforward. Kids can hear is often fairly straightforward. Kids can hear evidence for this quite easily. evidence for this quite easily. (Not (Not trivialtrivial, , though—consider German SOV-V2)though—consider German SOV-V2)

Principle APrinciple A

22)22) Sam believes [that Sam believes [that HarryHarry overestimates overestimates himselfhimself]]

23)23) SamSam-wa [-wa [HarryHarry-ga -ga zibunzibun-o tunet-ta to] it-ta]-o tunet-ta to] it-ta]Sam-top Harry-nom Sam-top Harry-nom selfself-acc pinch-past-that say--acc pinch-past-that say-pastpast‘Sam said that Harry pinched him(self).’‘Sam said that Harry pinched him(self).’

Principle APrinciple A

Principle A.Principle A. A reflexive pronoun A reflexive pronoun must have a higher antecedent in its must have a higher antecedent in its binding domain.binding domain.

Parameter: Binding DomainParameter: Binding Domain Option (a):Option (a): domain = domain = smallest clausesmallest clause

containing the reflexive pronouncontaining the reflexive pronoun Option (b):Option (b): domain = domain = utteranceutterance

containing the reflexive pronouncontaining the reflexive pronoun

But how can you set this But how can you set this parameter?parameter?

Every sentence a kid learning English hears Every sentence a kid learning English hears is consistent with is consistent with both both values of the values of the parameterparameter!!

If a kid learning English decided to opt for If a kid learning English decided to opt for the “utterance” version of the domain the “utterance” version of the domain parameter, nothing would ever tell the kid parameter, nothing would ever tell the kid s/he had made a mistake.s/he had made a mistake.

S/he would end up with non-English S/he would end up with non-English intuitions.intuitions.


A kid learning Japanese can tell right A kid learning Japanese can tell right away that their domain is the away that their domain is the sentence, since they’ll hear sentence, since they’ll hear sentences where sentences where zibunzibun refers to an refers to an antecedent outside the clause.antecedent outside the clause.


The set of sentences allowed in English is a The set of sentences allowed in English is a subsetsubset of the set of sentences allowed in of the set of sentences allowed in Japanese.Japanese. If you started assuming the If you started assuming the English value, you could learn the Japanese English value, you could learn the Japanese value, but not vice-versa.value, but not vice-versa.

Sentences allowed in Sentences allowed in JapaneseJapanese (domain = (domain = utteranceutterance))

Sentences allowed in Sentences allowed in EnglishEnglish (domain = (domain = clauseclause))

Subset principle/defaultsSubset principle/defaults

Leads to:Leads to: The acquisition device The acquisition device selects selects the most restrictive the most restrictive parametric valueparametric value consistent with consistent with experience. experience. ((Subset principleSubset principle))

That is, for the That is, for the Principle A domain Principle A domain parameterparameter, you (a LAD) , you (a LAD) startstart assuming you’re learning assuming you’re learning EnglishEnglish and switch to and switch to JapaneseJapanese only if only if presented with evidence.presented with evidence.

What it takes to set a What it takes to set a parameterparameter

Binding domain parameterBinding domain parameter Option (a): Binding domain is Option (a): Binding domain is clauseclause.. Option (b): Binding domain is Option (b): Binding domain is utteranceutterance..

English English = option a, = option a, Japanese Japanese = = option b.option b.

EJ


Binding domain Binding domain parameterparameter Kids should start under Kids should start under

the assumption that the the assumption that the parameter has the parameter has the EnglishEnglish setting.setting.

If they hear only English If they hear only English sentences, they will stick sentences, they will stick with that setting.with that setting.

If they hear Japanese If they hear Japanese sentences, they will have sentences, they will have evidence to move to the evidence to move to the JapaneseJapanese setting. setting.

EJ


Null subject parameterNull subject parameter Option (a): Null subjects are Option (a): Null subjects are permittedpermitted.. Option (b): Null subjects are Option (b): Null subjects are not permittednot permitted..

Italian Italian = option a, = option a, English English = option b.= option b.

E

IVery sensible. Now, let’s consider another parameter of variation across languages.


The Subset principle says that The Subset principle says that kids should start with the kids should start with the English setting and English setting and learnlearn Italian if the evidence appears.Italian if the evidence appears.

But even But even EnglishEnglish kids are well- kids are well-known to drop subjects early known to drop subjects early on in acquisition. As if had the on in acquisition. As if had the Italian setting for this Italian setting for this parameter.parameter.

E

I

Moreover…Moreover…

EnglishEnglish kids hear kids hear looks goodlooks good and and seems okseems ok and and stop that right nowstop that right now. Why don’t they end . Why don’t they end up speaking Italian? If they mis-set the up speaking Italian? If they mis-set the parameter, how could they ever recover?parameter, how could they ever recover?

ItalianItalian kids hear subjectless sentences— kids hear subjectless sentences—why don’t they interpret them as why don’t they interpret them as imperatives or fragments (so as not to have imperatives or fragments (so as not to have to change the parameter from the default)?to change the parameter from the default)?

TriggersTriggers

It seems like It seems like actual occurrence of actual occurrence of null subjectsnull subjects isn’t a very good clue isn’t a very good clue as to whether a subject is a null as to whether a subject is a null subject language or not.subject language or not.

Are there better clues? If a Are there better clues? If a strapping young LAD were trying strapping young LAD were trying to set the null subject parameter, to set the null subject parameter, what should it look for? what should it look for?

TriggersTriggers Turns out:Turns out: Only true subject-drop languages Only true subject-drop languages

allow null subjects in tensed embedded allow null subjects in tensed embedded clauses.clauses.

24)24) *John knows that [— must go]. *John knows that [— must go]. ((EnglishEnglish))

25)25) Juan sabe que [— debe ir].Juan sabe que [— debe ir]. ((SpanishSpanish))‘Juan knows that [he] must go.’‘Juan knows that [he] must go.’

Perhaps the LAD “knows” this and looks for Perhaps the LAD “knows” this and looks for exactly this evidence.exactly this evidence. Null subjects in Null subjects in embedded tensed clauses would be a embedded tensed clauses would be a triggertrigger for the (positive setting of the) null subject for the (positive setting of the) null subject parameter.parameter.

TriggersTriggers A potential problem with the proposed A potential problem with the proposed

subject-drop trigger is that it requires subject-drop trigger is that it requires complexcomplex sentences—you need to look at an sentences—you need to look at an embedded sentence to check for the embedded sentence to check for the trigger.trigger.

Such sentences might be too complicated Such sentences might be too complicated for kids to process.for kids to process.

Degree-1 learnability:Degree-1 learnability: Triggers need Triggers need look no lower than look no lower than 1 level of embedding1 level of embedding..

Degree-0 learnability:Degree-0 learnability: Triggers need Triggers need look only at look only at main clausesmain clauses..

TriggersTriggers Many who work on learnability haveMany who work on learnability have

adopted the hypothesis that triggersadopted the hypothesis that triggersneed to be degree-0 learnable.need to be degree-0 learnable.

SubjacencySubjacency. *[. *[whwh [ [ … [ … [ … … tt … ] ] … ] ]where where and and are bounding nodes. are bounding nodes.

Bounding node parameter for IP:Bounding node parameter for IP: Option (a):Option (a): IP IP isis a bounding node (English). a bounding node (English). Option (b):Option (b): IP IP is notis not a bounding node (French, a bounding node (French,

Italian).Italian).

IP and TP are often

used inter-changeably

TriggersTriggers

Thus, a kid learning French couldn’t choose Thus, a kid learning French couldn’t choose option (b) by hearing this…option (b) by hearing this…

28)28) Violà un liste de gens… ‘there is a list of people…’Violà un liste de gens… ‘there is a list of people…’

[[à quià qui on n’a pas encore trouvé [ on n’a pas encore trouvé [quoiquoi envoyer envoyer t tt t ]] ]]to whomto whom one has not yet found [ one has not yet found [whatwhat to send]] to send]]

……since that’s a degree-2 trigger. But…since that’s a degree-2 trigger. But…

TriggersTriggers

29)29) CombienCombien as- [ as- [IPIP tu vu [ tu vu [NPNP t t de personnes]]?de personnes]]?

How-manyHow-many have you seen of people have you seen of people‘How many people did you see?’‘How many people did you see?’

If IP If IP werewere a bounding node, this should be a bounding node, this should be ungrammatical in French, so this can serve ungrammatical in French, so this can serve as (degree-0) evidence for option (b).as (degree-0) evidence for option (b).

TriggersTriggers

Principles are part of UGPrinciples are part of UG

Parameters are defined by UGParameters are defined by UG

Triggers for parameter settings are Triggers for parameter settings are defined as part of the LAD.defined as part of the LAD.

Backing up a few stepsBacking up a few steps

Of course, there’s a long way to go Of course, there’s a long way to go between being plunked down in the between being plunked down in the world and evaluating whether you’re world and evaluating whether you’re hearing null subjects in embedded hearing null subjects in embedded tensed clauses (or, conversely and tensed clauses (or, conversely and degree-0 learnably, expletives like in degree-0 learnably, expletives like in it’s rainingit’s raining).). What are the words?What are the words? Which ones are verbs?Which ones are verbs?

ll√√kk\\tt∂∂ætætˆtsts∂\∂\ssˆttgosaingosain! !

ændænd\\mmˆnivænnivæn! ! sisi∂\∂\

brbrˆddΩΩ??

Learning language is Learning language is hard.hard.

Kids have to Kids have to findfind the words. the words.

ExtractionExtraction:: identify grammatical units. identify grammatical units. SegmentationSegmentation:: analyze identified analyze identified

units into component parts.units into component parts.

We will disregard these important We will disregard these important points in order to proceed analyzing points in order to proceed analyzing the development of syntax.the development of syntax.

Do kids have syntactic Do kids have syntactic categories?categories?

Once they’ve got the words, have the Once they’ve got the words, have the kids categorized them correctly?kids categorized them correctly?

Do kids categorize the linguistic Do kids categorize the linguistic world in terms of the same kinds of world in terms of the same kinds of categories adults do?categories adults do? (e.g., (e.g., nounnoun, , verbverb, …), …)

Evidence is hard to come by.Evidence is hard to come by.

Nouns firstNouns first

Kids seem to learn nouns first—Kids seem to learn nouns first—nouns dominate by about 2:1 over nouns dominate by about 2:1 over predicates.predicates.

This seems to be a crosslinguistic This seems to be a crosslinguistic fact (Gentner 1982: German, Kaluli, fact (Gentner 1982: German, Kaluli, Mandarin, Turkish, Japanese).Mandarin, Turkish, Japanese).

Why?Why?

It’s not because they’re inflectionally It’s not because they’re inflectionally impoverished.impoverished. EnglishEnglish: : verbs are verbs are slightlyslightly more more

inflected than nouns.inflected than nouns. MandarinMandarin: : neither verbs neither verbs nornor nouns are nouns are

inflected.inflected. TurkishTurkish: : both verbs both verbs andand nouns are nouns are

inflected.inflected.

Why?Why?

It’s not because they’re, say, last in It’s not because they’re, say, last in the word order (and last position is the word order (and last position is “salient”)“salient”)

English and other SVO languages, sure.English and other SVO languages, sure. But Japanese and other SOV languages But Japanese and other SOV languages

also start out with an abundance of also start out with an abundance of nouns, and the nouns, and the verbverb is final. is final.

Why?Why?

Speculations:Speculations:

The referents of nouns are perceptually The referents of nouns are perceptually more accessible?more accessible?

Verbs imply other things (verbs have Verbs imply other things (verbs have --roles), nouns don’t… verbs are more roles), nouns don’t… verbs are more complexcomplex..

Category optionsCategory options(thanks to UG)(thanks to UG)

NounNoun VerbVerb AdjectiveAdjective Pre/post-positionPre/post-position AdverbAdverb PronounPronoun

DeterminerDeterminer AuxiliaryAuxiliary Degree wordDegree word ComplementizerComplementizer ConjunctionConjunction ModalModal ……

Kids don’t need to figure out that there can be nouns and verbs…

Semantic bootstrappingSemantic bootstrapping UG probably provides something like UG probably provides something like

prototypical correspondences that can help prototypical correspondences that can help at the beginning of lexical acquisition.at the beginning of lexical acquisition.

Category Corresponding semantic notion

Noun Person or thing

Verb Action or change of state

Adjective Perceptible physical property or attribute

Preposition Spatial relation, path, or direction

Morphological cues can Morphological cues can help after thathelp after that

30)30) The boy sibbed the ballThe boy sibbed the ball

31)31) The dog is blicking in the yard.The dog is blicking in the yard.

““The other verbs I know can have The other verbs I know can have these -these -eded and and -ing-ing things tacked things tacked onto them, so onto them, so sibsib and and blickblick must be must be verbs too.”verbs too.”

So, do kids have So, do kids have syntactic categories?syntactic categories?

There’s not really any clear way to There’s not really any clear way to know at the earliest (one word) stages.know at the earliest (one word) stages.

One view is that the null hypothesis One view is that the null hypothesis (which we adopt, lacking evidence to (which we adopt, lacking evidence to the contrary) should be that kids do the contrary) should be that kids do have adult-like syntactic categories.have adult-like syntactic categories.

Continuity.Continuity. Kids end up being adults Kids end up being adults with adult syntactic categories; if they with adult syntactic categories; if they initially categorize words differently, initially categorize words differently, we need to explain how they change we need to explain how they change their categorization to the adult type.their categorization to the adult type.

Where we’re atWhere we’re at

We’ve seen the motivations for a view We’ve seen the motivations for a view of language acquisition in terms of an of language acquisition in terms of an innate capacity for language, and innate capacity for language, and we’ve looked at a few of the we’ve looked at a few of the learnability issues.learnability issues.

Next, we will dive into experiments Next, we will dive into experiments and look at some of the properties of and look at some of the properties of syntax around age 2.syntax around age 2.

week 1. introduction grs lx 700 language acquisition and linguistic theory

Documents

martins chair

native speaker of english

linguistic theory slide

espresso doppio

rate sentences

grammar people

stuff adult native speakers

language acquisition