Week 10 Private armies

Week 10

Yesterday and today:

soldiers-of-fortuneWhat are soldiers-of-fortune?Who do they fight for?

Why talk about them in a course on old and new wars?What are soldiers-of-fortune?

Soldiers-of-fortune are military personnel who fight as individuals not as regular soldiers, i.e.,they fight as mercenaries, members of private armies, and/or employees of security companies; they provide security-for-money, though the ones who also serve some kind of cause may be called state irregulars, or para-militaries; c.f. militia,who are civilians and citizens who fight - without pay - because of their loyalty to their country and their desire to have it win

militia

Soldiers-of-fortune are thus soldiers-for-hire; they are known (negatively) as dogs-of-war whoperform strategic services for personal gain; to dothis they contract their military skills either .. to part of a states armed forces (specifically set up for them), or .. to a private security company which then uses these skills to promote its prospectus; in this case soldiers-of-fortune fight for companies like1. Academi: founded in 1997, this was first known as Blackwater; its name was changed to Xe Services in 2009 and to Academi in 2011 . it has a 7,000 acre training facility in the U.S. (the largest such facility in America) . it has trained 50,000 military personnel, law enforcement, and counter-terrorism agents, and has a field force of 20,000 and . it has been on missions in Afghanistan and Iraq8 Academi

2. Defion Internacional: headquartered in Peru, this organization has offices Dubai, Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Iraq . with another mercenary firm, Triple Canopy, it was involved in recruiting and training personnel for the Iraq War . it supplied about 3,000 personnel for the Green Zone in Baghdad . it provides personal and static guards, drivers, logistics supporters, and even English teachers

Defion Internacional [spot the English teacher}3. Aegis Defense Services: founded in 2002, this British private military company has offices in Afghanistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Kenya, Nepal and the U.S.; it has a staff of 5,000 and has taken part in missions in 40 states for 20 governments, plus the U.N. and companies in emerging markets; it does . emergency response . risk assessment, and . work protecting oil supply services It is infamous for a video from 2005 which shows Aegis forces firing on Iraqi civilians

4. Triple Canopy, Inc. has a contract with the U.S. government to supply Iraqi forces; founded in 2003 by U.S. Army Special Forces veterans, it currently employs ex-Delta Forces personnel plus 5,000 ex-Navy SEALs, Rangers, and those who were once part of Army Special Operations . it provides security services to government agencies, corporations and non-governmental organizations across the globe and its forces are said to be well trained [and] professional

5. DynCorp: founded in 1946 as Land-Air, Inc. and initially an air freight and aircraft maintenance

company, this firm has worked for the U.S. . in Colombia, Bolivia, Somalia, Angola, Haiti, Kosovo, Peru, Iraq and Kuwait . as security for the president of Afghanistan, e.g. as instructors for his guards and police force . it receives 96% of its $3bn. annual income from the U.S. federal government and is currently looking to become a partner with the defense contractor Raytheon

6. G4S has 657,000 employees and operates in 125 countries; it is the third-largest private employer in the world after Wal-Mart Stores and Foxconn; founded in Denmark in 1901, the present company was formed in 2004 out of Securicor and Group 4 Falck; it provides . security forces for private clients and government agencies . intelligence, and . land-mine clearance and training

Other well-known companies include . the Unity Resources Group (Australian-owned), which operates throughout Africa, the Americas, Central Asia and Europe . Erinys, which provides security for iron ore, oil, and gas projects in Africa and also followed U.S contracts into Iraq . the Asia Security Group, which protects supply convoys in Afghanistan and recruits personnel for DynCorp

Over the last 10 years renting soldiers-of-fortune has gone from a niche industry to a global oneworth (the U.N. estimates) $100bn., i.e., the marketis large and still growing; it is mostly paid for by Western governments that want to limit the cost of their conventional forces (this is the politico-economic dimension of this issue) . n.b. the firms involved today are also looking for new business, e.g. private corporations going into insecure, unstable areas; these are clearly potential customersOne firm in particular is preparing for new business; it is the example given at the beginning, namely, Academi, which has more than 90% of its current contracts with governments but in the future envisages half of its customers being corporations, e.g., energy firms and hotel chains; to meet this demand it is planning a new training facility in east Africa . n.b., how as the market grows non-Western firms also want a share, e.g. when Chinese road workers were kidnapped in South Sudan in January, 2012, Chinese armed guards helped to get them released . one firm based in Beijing (the Shandong Huawei Security Group) says it has already supplied guards for overseas work . it is now looking for jobs in .. Iraq, and .. Angola where a quarter of a million Chinese work

International security firms that deploy soldiers-of-fortune create smaller, local firms; when theyenter new areas and employ locals as sub-contractors, these often start up on their own renting out experienced mercenaries . in June, 2012, for example, a U.N. monitoring group found private, anti-piracy personnel in Somalia to be the best-equipped locals available . it so happens they were trained by the former head of Blackwater (now Academi) These small, local groups work for the highest bidder, whether this be an oil firm or a dictator, e.g., . Colonel Qaddafi was hiring mercenaries before the Libyan revolution finally killed him (in October 2011) . he paid these soldiers up to US$1000 a day

$1000 a day

This raises the issue of how such a fragmented industry can be regulated, since it is unlikely to regulate itself

. it is, after all, a fiercely competitive one At the same time . the worlds standing armies are shrinking, and . the nature of war is changing .. low-intensity conflicts are replacing large ones .. armed forces are becoming just one weapon available, while .. the range of advanced weapons is increasing

advanced weapons [e.g. drones]

- maintaining these systems is a serious problem; soldiers have to spend more time learning how to operate and monitor them; armies can have trouble keeping up so they employ private contractors to help them do so (this is the issues politico-strategic dimension) = the number of private military companies is growing rapidly in response to this demand = they provide soldiers-of-fortune able to perform vital non-combat roles, though they do more than maintain drones e.g., Sandline International subcontracted Executive Outcomes to end a rebellion at the Panguna copper mine on Bougainville island in the South Pacific - Executive Outcomes (EO) was founded in 1989 by a former lieutenant-colonel in the South African Defense Force, Eeben Barlow; it provided military personnel, training, and logistical support to officially recognized governments; he did give help to firms but only with government approval

- Executive Outcomes employed exclusively South African personnel; despite the PNG disaster (see later), it preferred to fight in Africa, e.g., on behalf of the Angolan government against the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), which was the opposition party = this particular campaign began as a protection job; in 1993 an oil company contracted EO to provide security for its staff while they recovered drilling equipment stranded at the UNITA-held port of Soyo; together with the Angolan Army, it captured Soyo; EO retrained the Angolan Army and captured Cafunfu - the diamond area that was being used to fund UNITAs war effort; the UN and the blood diamond lobby forced EO to withdraw; the UN had then to spend billions restoring the order EO had established for $35m

- in 1995, EO was contracted to fight rebels then marching on Sierra Leones capital, Freetown; EO defeated the rebels with 200 troops; free and fair elections followed, however, pressure once again forced EO to withdraw; the UN sent in 18,000 soldiers at the cost of $1bn. a year; the rebels regrouped, often taking UN troops hostage, and the country sank back (EO says) into an orgy of cannibalism and limb chopping

- as Barlow says: EO operated primarily in Africa helping African governments that had been abandoned by the West and were facing threats from insurgencies, terrorism and organized crime I believe that only Africans (Black and White) can truly solve Africas problems - EO later became part of a South African-based company, the Strategic Resource Corporation - in 1997 Barlow left - in 1998 EO was disbanded because South Africa made it illegal for its nationals to become mercenaries; there was also the Papua New Guinea disaster when the commander of PNGs defense forces withdrew support for the Bougainville contract and ordered all mercenaries to be held on arrival; EOs men were disarmed and then deported, the PNG prime minister was forced to resign, and the country came close to a military coup Panguna copper mine on Bougainville

Sandline International itself was founded in 1994 by Tim Spicer and Simon Mann - Mann went to Eton College and Sandhurst - he then joined the Scots Guards and later the Special Air Service (the SAS) - he served in Cyprus, Germany, Norway and Northern Ireland before leaving the army - he was recalled to fight in the Gulf War, however - in March 2004, he and 69 others were arrested in Zimbabwe on their way to attempt a coup in Equatorial Guinea (funded by Sir Mark Thatcher) - at stake was EGs vast oil and gas reserves

- Sir Timothy Spicer was also ex-Sandhurst, the Scots Guards and Northern Ireland (though he served in the Falkland Islands as well) - he tried to join the SAS but failed to meet the entry standards - as Sandline he was involved in importing weapons into Sierra Leone, despite a UN arms embargo; he was part of the PNG disaster too - in 1999 he left to launch another private firm, Crisis and Risk Management - he changed the name to Strategic Consulting International and set up a partner company that specialized in anti-piracy consulting - in 2002 he set up Aegis Defense Services, which in October 2004 won a $293m. 3-year contract in Iraq to gather intelligence for the US army (Spicer was replaced as chief executive in 2010) = n.b. by 2004 Spicer headed the second largest military force in Iraq, i.e., 20,000 rent-soldiers = in December 2005 Senator Obama wanted the contract cancelled for human rights reasons

In total soldiers-or-fortune constitute a military force today larger than that at the command of the U.S.; this is not a familiar fact but it is not new, e.g., . in 401BC, Cyrus the Younger, a Persian prince, hired an army of Greek mercenaries (the Ten Thousand) to help him take the throne from his brother, Artaxerxes II; Cyrus won but he was killed, as were many of the Greek soldiers; Xenophon persuaded the rest to retreat to the Black Sea (see his account in the Anabasis)

Even earlier, in the 13th century BC, the Pharaoh Ramesses II is said to have used 11,000 mercenariesas . scouts and light infantry: these were recruited from Nubia . heavy duty troops: these were recruited from Libya, Syria and Canaan . personal body-guards: these (the Sherdens) were recruited from Sardinia; they were notable for their horned helmets

Ramesses II [and] the Sherdens of Sardinia In the 1st century BC the Greek rulers of Ptolemaic Egypt used Celtic mercenaries from Galatia . the Celts were a group of tribes from Central Europe . they spread over much of the rest of Europe from 500-200BC and were fierce warriors . the Ptolemaic Egyptians were wealthy and could afford to employ them Celtic mercenaries from Galatia

In the Warring States period in ancient China(481-403BC) mercenaries were regularly usedby the emperors trying to unify the country, e.g., . the Qin and Han emperors used paid recruits that included nomadic horse-archers from the Northern steppes, and soldiers from the Yue kingdoms in the South . in the 7th century the Tang emperors hired Tibetan and Uyghur soldiers to use against invaders like the Gokturks archers from the Northern steppes

In the late 4th century BC the Roman Empire found it increasingly difficult to raise military units fromits own citizens because of lack of . manpower . time available for training, and . materialsBands of barbarians were often contracted, eitherfor use within legions or as independent fightersThe Byzantine emperors followed the Romans, e.g., the Varangian (Viking) Guard the Varangian (Viking) Guard

From August 1570 to August 1580 the Saika mercenaries of the Kii province in Japan playedan important role in the siege of Ishiyama Hongan-ji . the Saikashuu were famous for supporting the Ikko Buddhist sectAlso famous as mercenaries were the ninja, i.e. . peasant farmers who had learned how to fight the samurai . from the 14th to the mid 18th century they were also used as hired assassins the Saika mercenaries [and a] ninja

In the 14th century the almogavares were used as mercenaries in Italy and the Levant; they cameoriginally from the Pyrenees and as frontiersmen they wore no armor . they originally fought (for money, of course) for Catalonia and Aragon . they later fought for the Byzantine emperor, turning on him after defeating the Turks . they were disciplined, fierce and earned a long-lasting reputation for cruelty

During the late Middle Ages there were mercenary free companies . regimes that did not have the money to maintain standing armies often hired them . veteran soldiers looking for employment often joined them .. they were specialized in the forms of fighting that required longer training-times than militia, for example, ever received . in the 14th century, the White Company was the best known English case of such a company the White Company [led by Sir John Hawkwood]

. Great Britain hired German mercenaries to fight against the American colonists in the Revolutionary War; e.g. there were 30,000 Hessian soldiers that made up a quarter of the British force .. the Continental Army under George Washington also employed mercenaries .. they fought alongside the colonial militia and the soldiers in his regular army

30,000 Hessian [mercenary] soldiers

the Continental Army also employed mercenaries

Individual soldiers-of-fortune have often become very famous; before Simon Mann and Tim Spicer,for example, there was Thomas Mad Mike Hoare,best known for his mercenary activities in Africa (e.g. the Congo) and his attempt to stage a coup detat in the Seychelles . born in India he served in North Africa and Italy during WWII . after the war he emigrated to South Africa and began free-lancing in various African states

What legal standing do soldiers-of-fortune have? According to the Geneva Conventions lawful combatants are those who belong to the armed forces of a state, can legally participate in hostilities against other states, and merit prisoner-of-war status if captured; by contrast . one of the three amendments to the Geneva Conventions - the First Protocol of 1977 (Art.47) - says a soldier-of-fortune is a soldier who is specially recruited to take part in any conflict, i.e., is not a member of the armed forces of the state doing the recruiting . takes a direct part in hostilities for private gain (usually being paid a lot more than ordinary soldiers) . is neither a national of nor a resident of the states involved in the conflict, and . has not been sent by some other state, i.e., someone not part of the conflict concerned

In other words: soldiers-of-fortune of any kind are not - according to the Geneva Conventions -lawful combatants; they have no protection under these Conventions which means they can beexecuted or charged with murder if they kill a regular soldier or an ordinary civilian . in 1989 the U.N.G.A. passed a resolution out- lawing their use, though only 33 states have so far ratified it (the U.S. is not likely to do so since soldiers-of-fortune are too useful)

. The International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries entered into force in 2001 .. Art. 1 defines soldiers-of-fortune like Art. 47 of the Geneva Convention, Protocol 1 does, but .. Art. 1.2 broadens the definition to include non- nationals recruited to overthrow a government or otherwise undermine the constitutional order or territorial integrity of the state; it also says .. a person does not have to directly participate in a planned coup to be seen as a soldier-of-fortune The situation during the Iraq War, and the continuing occupation of Iraq after the hand-overof power to an Iraqi government, shows how hard it can be to define a soldier-of-fortune . when the U.S. governed Iraq, U.S. armed guards were not deemed to be soldiers-of-fortune because they were Americans and the U.S. was part of the conflict . after the hand-over, the same guards became soldiers sent by a state not a party to the conflict . unless lawfully certified residents of Iraq, i.e., citizens of Iraq, they became soldiers-of-fortune . if they then became involved in a fire-fight they did so as illegal and irregular forces, not legal and regular ones, and could be charged with murder . once the U.S. became party to the conflict again, however, the same guards ceased to be soldiers- of-fortune and became regular armed personnel protected by the law

76By the way: if you want to join one, private security contractors recruit world-wide or from the region where they are based; remember though that . those accepted have usually had a previous career in the military or law enforcement, and . contractors have clear preferences, e.g., British firms like to hire ex-members of the Special Air Services (the SAS) - a special forces regiment within the British army; other contractors (like the U.S. ones) are the same Special Air Services

As an employee you can also be sent anywhere on any security-related task, e.g., . training guards how to stop poachers who threaten endangered wildlife like the black rhino . providing site security and planning and training for corporations like BP, Exxon, and DeBeers . guarding senior civil servants and other officials . protecting oil installations, and . conducting anti-drug operations

guard[ing] officials [the British Council in Kabul, when it was attacked and defended]

The pay is certainly high since you can earn, as notedearlier, up to US$1,000 a day, but you will . receive no benefits and have to pay your own taxes . have to fight even though you will be less likely to be killed than regular soldiers since your work will usually be less offensive . play a combat role that will never be clear and will always, therefore, be rather controversial I noted at the start: state militaries do set up divisions that use soldiers-of-fortune; you can join, e.g., i) the French Foreign Legion - founded 1831 by the French king, who recruited soldiers from disbanded Swiss and German mercenary regiments into his regular army - but not ii) the British Gurkhas . the Legion is unique because it is made up of foreigners who fight outside France for money (though the officers are French and so are 25% of the soldiers; the rest - for 3 years - are not) the Gurkhas

The FFL was originally organized by nation - Swiss, Polish, German, Italian, Spanish and Dutch/Belgian . they were first sent to Algeria; this became their base for 130 years . they subsequently served in Spain, Crimea, Italy, Mexico, Tonkin, Formosa, Dahomey [Benin], Niger, and Madagascar; in WWI [on the western front]; in WWII [against each other]; Indochina, Algeria, Chad, the Congo, Rwanda, the Ivory Coast and Iraq French Foreign Legion

There are only about 8,000 Legionnaires but theycome from 136 different countries . the first test is one for fitness and motivation . the second is a 15 week training program (after signing a 5-year contract) . the third is serving beside regular French military forces and police, and soldiers from other states, e.g., as peacekeepers in Kosovo, Rwanda, Cambodia and Afghanistan N.b., since 1831, 35,000 have been killed in battle [in] Afghanistan

And the states perspective? Soldiers-of-fortune can be an advantage but they can also be a liability . they may not save a government much money since hiring high-quality soldiers is expensive . they may also resign because of an employers unwillingness or inability to pay them . they may even turn on their employer and revolt (n.b. Niccolo Machiavelli argued against them for this very reason in The Prince [1532]; also as fighters-for-pay they usually dont like to die)

Finally, are they an old or new war resource? . states are privatizing their conflicts and using more non-state actors, i.e., security services . these are paid for using tax monies in the same way regular soldiers are, but mercenaries are on contracts that may be outside defense budgets . they are also used for many other purposes than fighting over territory, e.g., guarding embassies and oil installations; state dis-mantling; mine clearance; and protecting corporate personnel 95What do you think? Are soldiers-of-fortune evidence of a change from old to new war? . are they part of globalization as Kaldor sees it? . do they tell us something about armies fighting battles over territory while spending tax monies and observing the laws of war? . do they tell us about regular and irregular forces using displacement to affirm identity while engaging in predatory financing and ignoring the laws of war? Meanwhile and I hope to see you next week

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