Week 2b. Categories and Week 2b. Categories and featuresfeatures

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Where we were…Where we were…

Lexical categories:Lexical categories: N: nounN: noun A: adjectiveA: adjective Adv: adverbAdv: adverb V: verbV: verb P: prepositionP: preposition

Functional categories:Functional categories: I: inflection/aux/modalI: inflection/aux/modal D: D:

determinerdeterminer C: complementizerC: complementizer PRN: Pronoun PRN: Pronoun

Not all nouns are the Not all nouns are the samesame

We’re trying to describe syntactic We’re trying to describe syntactic behavior of words, and we tried to behavior of words, and we tried to put words into categories based on put words into categories based on differences and similarities in differences and similarities in behavior (distribution).behavior (distribution).

But we already know that there are But we already know that there are differences even between members differences even between members of the same category, for example of the same category, for example countcount vs. vs. massmass nouns. nouns.

Count and MassCount and Mass

We could just say, fine, we have two We could just say, fine, we have two categories: Count, and Mass.categories: Count, and Mass. [[MassMass furniture], [ furniture], [Mass Mass freedom]freedom] [[CountCount chair], [ chair], [CountCount pinnacle] pinnacle]

But then we miss the fact, But then we miss the fact, essentially, that they’re all nouns. essentially, that they’re all nouns. E.g., what do adjectives modify?E.g., what do adjectives modify? Comfortable furniture makes me happy.Comfortable furniture makes me happy. Comfortable chairs make me happy.Comfortable chairs make me happy.

Commonalities and Commonalities and differencesdifferences

Basically, mass nouns have Basically, mass nouns have something in common with count something in common with count nouns (namely, they’re nouns), while nouns (namely, they’re nouns), while also having differences (count nouns also having differences (count nouns are countable, mass nouns are not).are countable, mass nouns are not). Nouns have the property of being a Nouns have the property of being a

noun.noun. Count nouns have the property of being Count nouns have the property of being

countable, mass nouns do not.countable, mass nouns do not.

FeaturesFeatures A “feature” is a fancy name for A “feature” is a fancy name for

“property”, and is used to express these “property”, and is used to express these similarities and differences. Features are similarities and differences. Features are generally binary [+F] or [-F].generally binary [+F] or [-F]. Count nouns have the feature [+count].Count nouns have the feature [+count]. Mass nouns have the feature [-count].Mass nouns have the feature [-count]. Both have the feature [+N].Both have the feature [+N].

So things that are true of nouns we can So things that are true of nouns we can say are true of words with the feature say are true of words with the feature [+N]. Things that are true of [+N]. Things that are true of count nounscount nouns are true of things that are [+N, +count].are true of things that are [+N, +count].

Proper and common Proper and common nounsnouns

We can similarly distinguish We can similarly distinguish proper nounsproper nouns (names) from (names) from common nounscommon nouns (types). (types). Boston, Chomsky, SeptemberBoston, Chomsky, September park, linguist, monthpark, linguist, month

Proper nouns don’t occur with Proper nouns don’t occur with determiners (or if they do, they are determiners (or if they do, they are interpreted as if they were common interpreted as if they were common nouns: nouns: I met every Chomsky at the picnic, I met every Chomsky at the picnic, I go to classes every September, the I go to classes every September, the Boston I remember was cleaner than this.Boston I remember was cleaner than this.

[±Common][±Common]

So, So, Boston Boston is a [+N, -Common] and is a [+N, -Common] and parkpark is a [+N, +Common]. But they is a [+N, +Common]. But they are both [+N].are both [+N].

These “secondary” features define These “secondary” features define subclasses of categories, and are subclasses of categories, and are sometimes referred to as sometimes referred to as subcategorial featuressubcategorial features..

Feature matricesFeature matrices

We can in fact encode many of the We can in fact encode many of the grammatical properties words can have as grammatical properties words can have as features, which will be useful in formulating features, which will be useful in formulating our theory. The features will be anything our theory. The features will be anything that our grammatical rules/generalizations that our grammatical rules/generalizations can “refer to”.can “refer to”.

The dog [+N, +Count, -Plural] is hot.The dog [+N, +Count, -Plural] is hot. The dogs [+N, +Count, +Plural] are hot.The dogs [+N, +Count, +Plural] are hot. The soup [+N, -Count, -Plural] is hot.The soup [+N, -Count, -Plural] is hot. The scissors [+N, -Count, +Plural] are hot.The scissors [+N, -Count, +Plural] are hot.

Feature matricesFeature matrices The dog [+N, +Count, -Plural] is hot.The dog [+N, +Count, -Plural] is hot. The dogs [+N, +Count, +Plural] are hot.The dogs [+N, +Count, +Plural] are hot. The soup [+N, -Count, -Plural] is hot.The soup [+N, -Count, -Plural] is hot. The scissors [+N, -Count, +Plural] are hot.The scissors [+N, -Count, +Plural] are hot.

The auxiliary The auxiliary bebe shows plural agreement: shows plural agreement: it is it is areare when the subject is [+Plural] and when the subject is [+Plural] and isis when the subject is [-Plural]. It doesn’t when the subject is [-Plural]. It doesn’t refer to (care about) [±Count].refer to (care about) [±Count].

Adjectives and adverbsAdjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are a lot alike. Most Adjectives and adverbs are a lot alike. Most adjectives have an adverb form, and can in adjectives have an adverb form, and can in nonstandard speech in fact be used as nonstandard speech in fact be used as adverbs. They both can be modified by adverbs. They both can be modified by very.very.

Suggests that maybe this is more like the Suggests that maybe this is more like the difference between mass and count nouns difference between mass and count nouns than like the difference between nouns and than like the difference between nouns and verbs—perhaps [±ADV] is a verbs—perhaps [±ADV] is a subcategorial subcategorial feature.feature.

quickquick: [+A, -ADV]: [+A, -ADV] quicklquickly: [+A, +ADV]y: [+A, +ADV]

Verbal featuresVerbal features Like for nouns, we can think of the different forms Like for nouns, we can think of the different forms

that verbs take as being differentiated by features:that verbs take as being differentiated by features: (Note: I’m diverging a bit from Radford here, but I’m right.)(Note: I’m diverging a bit from Radford here, but I’m right.) He has shown improvement [+V, +Participle, -Past, +Perfect]He has shown improvement [+V, +Participle, -Past, +Perfect] He had shown improvement [+V, +Participle, +Past, +Perfect]He had shown improvement [+V, +Participle, +Past, +Perfect] He is showing improvement [+V, +Participle, -Past, -Perfect]He is showing improvement [+V, +Participle, -Past, -Perfect] He showed improvement [+V, -Participle, +Past]He showed improvement [+V, -Participle, +Past] He shows improvement [+V, -Participle, -Past, +3sg]He shows improvement [+V, -Participle, -Past, +3sg] You show improvement [+V, -Participle, -Past, -3sg]You show improvement [+V, -Participle, -Past, -3sg]

So, So, -s-s is usually [-Participle, -Past, +3sg], is usually [-Participle, -Past, +3sg], -en-en is is [+Participle, +Perfect], -[+Participle, +Perfect], -eded is [+Past], - is [+Past], -inging is is [+Participle, -Perfect].[+Participle, -Perfect].

Crosscategorial featuresCrosscategorial features

Consider what Consider what unun can attach to. can attach to. untie, unfold, unwrap, unpackuntie, unfold, unwrap, unpack unhappy, unfriendly, undeadunhappy, unfriendly, undead *uncity, *uncola, *unconvention*uncity, *uncola, *unconvention *unupon, *unalongside, *unat*unupon, *unalongside, *unat

Basically, it applies to reversible Basically, it applies to reversible verbs and adjectives, but not to nouns verbs and adjectives, but not to nouns or prepositions. How can we state or prepositions. How can we state that?that?

Crosscategorial featuresCrosscategorial features

Suppose that nouns and verbs are the most Suppose that nouns and verbs are the most basic categories. A noun is a noun and not basic categories. A noun is a noun and not a verb, and verb is a verb and not a noun.a verb, and verb is a verb and not a noun. Noun: [+N, -V].Noun: [+N, -V]. Verb: [-N, +V].Verb: [-N, +V].

A conceptual reason to separate nouns and A conceptual reason to separate nouns and verbs is that verbs are basically verbs is that verbs are basically predicatespredicates—they attribute some property to the —they attribute some property to the noun. Nouns are basically noun. Nouns are basically argumentsarguments, to , to be assigned properties by verbs.be assigned properties by verbs.

Crosscategorial featuresCrosscategorial features

Looked at this way, adjectives are Looked at this way, adjectives are kind of “verby” in that they are also kind of “verby” in that they are also attributing properties.attributing properties.

It’s hard to make that really precise, It’s hard to make that really precise, but we have a more concrete but we have a more concrete syntactic similarity between verbs syntactic similarity between verbs and adjectives too: both can take and adjectives too: both can take un-un-, while nouns and prepositions , while nouns and prepositions cannot.cannot.

SupercategoriesSupercategories

Chomsky (1970) proposed that we Chomsky (1970) proposed that we explain this by supposing that [±N] explain this by supposing that [±N] and [±V] are the two basic features and [±V] are the two basic features that determine the four lexical that determine the four lexical categories (N, V, A, P).categories (N, V, A, P). N: [+N, -V]N: [+N, -V] V: [-N, +V]V: [-N, +V] P: [-N, -V]P: [-N, -V] A: [+N, +V]A: [+N, +V]

Given that, what does Given that, what does un un attach to?attach to?

Russian CaseRussian Case

Other languages can give us evidence of Other languages can give us evidence of this as well. For example, Russian nouns this as well. For example, Russian nouns (all nouns) are marked for Case (like (all nouns) are marked for Case (like English pronouns are: English pronouns are: me me vs. vs. II), but when ), but when they are modified by an adjective, the they are modified by an adjective, the adjective is also marked for case.adjective is also marked for case.

What gets marked for Case in Russian?What gets marked for Case in Russian?

KrasivayKrasivayaa

dyevushkdyevushkaa

vsunulvsunulaa

chornuychornuyuu

koshkkoshkuu

vv pustuypustuyuu

korobkkorobkuu

beautifulbeautiful girlgirl putput blackblack catcat inin emptyempty boxbox

‘‘The beautiful girl put the black cat in the empty box’The beautiful girl put the black cat in the empty box’

Functional and lexicalFunctional and lexical

That takes care of N, V, A, P, but what That takes care of N, V, A, P, but what about our functional categories?about our functional categories?

In fact, the functional categories (C, I, D, In fact, the functional categories (C, I, D, PRN) each seem a little like a lexical PRN) each seem a little like a lexical category.category. Auxiliaries seem a lot like verbs (Auxiliaries seem a lot like verbs (have, be, dohave, be, do), ),

and inflect like verbs do.and inflect like verbs do. Complementizers and infinitival Complementizers and infinitival toto seem a bit seem a bit

like prepositions (e.g., like prepositions (e.g., for, tofor, to).). Pronouns are kind of nouny.Pronouns are kind of nouny. Determiners are a bit adjectivey.Determiners are a bit adjectivey.

[+F]?[+F]?

Perhaps we can add a third binary Perhaps we can add a third binary feature, [±F] to capture this:feature, [±F] to capture this:

[-F][-F] [+N][+N] [-N][-N]

[+V][+V] AA VV

[-V][-V] NN PP

[+F][+F] [+N][+N] [-N][-N]

[+V][+V] DD AuxAux

[-V][-V] PRNPRN C, IC, I

Grammatical categoryGrammatical category

So what, then is a grammatical category?So what, then is a grammatical category?

A A grammatical categorygrammatical category is a set of is a set of elements which have the same value(s) for elements which have the same value(s) for a given set of grammatical features.a given set of grammatical features.

Category labels like “N”, or “Aux” are Category labels like “N”, or “Aux” are really just shorthand for feature matrices really just shorthand for feature matrices like [+N, -V, -F], or [-N, +V, +F]. like [+N, -V, -F], or [-N, +V, +F]. Notationally convenient.Notationally convenient.

The morphology of The morphology of bebe Consider the following. How can we write Consider the following. How can we write

an efficient set of rules to give us the an efficient set of rules to give us the correct form of correct form of bebe??

[-Past][-Past] [+Past][+Past]

[-Pl][-Pl] [+Pl][+Pl] [-Pl][-Pl] [+Pl][+Pl]

[+1][+1] 11 amam areare waswas werewere

[-1, [-1, +2]+2]

22 areare areare werewere werewere

[-1, -2][-1, -2] 33 isis areare waswas werewere

The morphology of The morphology of bebe Ok, let’s test it out.Ok, let’s test it out. II [+1, -2, -Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] [+1, -2, -Pl, -Past, -N, +V, +F] ecstatic.ecstatic. TheyThey [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] [-1, -2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] leaving.leaving. Y’allY’all [-1, +2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] [-1, +2, +Pl, +Past, -N, +V, +F] late.late.

In general, we might suppose that’s all there In general, we might suppose that’s all there is to auxiliary is to auxiliary bebe: a bundle of properties : a bundle of properties (auxiliary (auxiliary bebe: -N, +V, +F; subject agreement: : -N, +V, +F; subject agreement: ±1, ±2, ±Pl; tense: ±Past) and some rules to ±1, ±2, ±Pl; tense: ±Past) and some rules to pronounce the bundles.pronounce the bundles.

Separating the Separating the underlying from the underlying from the

pronouncedpronounced This is a worthwhile point to remember. There is This is a worthwhile point to remember. There is an underlying feature bundle, the auxiliary is an an underlying feature bundle, the auxiliary is an auxiliary auxiliary bebe, with a tense, and some agreement , with a tense, and some agreement features. We know the rules about pronouncing features. We know the rules about pronouncing those features. Sometimes two feature bundles those features. Sometimes two feature bundles end up being pronounced in the same way.end up being pronounced in the same way.

In a real sense, the In a real sense, the areare in in You are happy You are happy and the and the areare in in We are happyWe are happy are are different wordsdifferent words, that , that just happen to be pronounced the same way. But just happen to be pronounced the same way. But they they could havecould have been pronounced distinctly. been pronounced distinctly.