week 6 - the research process an eight-step model ch 2 kumar 2005

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researdi process: an eight-sfep mocleJ Steps in planning a research stucSy Step i: formulating a research problem Step n: conceptualising a research desígn Step ni: constracting an Instrument fot data collection Step iv: seieeting a saniple Step v: \vriring a research proposa} Steps In conducting a study Step vi: coliecting data Step vn: processíng data Step vm: writifig a research report Summary c two r,

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An overview of the research process broken into eight steps. Kumar, 2005.

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Page 1: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

researdi process: an eight-sfep mocleJ

Steps in planning a research stucSyStep i: formulating a research problemStep n: conceptualising a research desígnStep ni: constracting an Instrument fot data

collectionStep iv: seieeting a sanipleStep v: \vriring a research proposa}

Steps In conducting a studyStep vi: coliecting dataStep vn: processíng dataStep vm: writifig a research report

Summary

ctwo

r,

Page 2: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

16 Research MgThíK

But much advantage Wifl occur íf me! of sderace become thtrir own epiatesnoiogists, Pr

and show to the woriíl by critica! espositioa in Bon-technicaí terms the resuits OOand methods of their coasoructíve vvork, chai more than mere ¿nstinct is in volved in<in ir. the eommunity has indeed a right to expecr as much as ihís (Poincaré1952: «0. F

DThe research process: an eight-step modeiResearch methodology is íaughí as a supporring subject in several ways in xmaay academic disciplines at varicras levéis by peopíe comniitted to a *Jvaríen' of research paradigmas. Tfaough paradigms vary in their contents ¿>and substance, theír broad appíroacjh to inquiry, ín the author's opinión,is similar. Such ideas bave aiso been expressed by Fesringer and Kacg,who in the forevrord of íheír foook Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences —say that "Aithoagh Ehe basic íc^ic of scientific meíhodology ís the sarne in SaJJ fíeids, iís spedSe techuiques and approaches will vary, depending upon —tíie siubjeci matter1 (i 966: vi). Therefore, íhe modei developed here ísgeneric ín nature and can be applied to a number of disciplines in the .social scieuees. It is based upon a practica! and step-by-step approach to , .a researcb inquiíy aod each step provides a smorgasbord of methods, i-modeís and procedures. ,

Suppose you want to go ouí for a drive. Befóte you start, you must ,.„.decide where you want to go and íhen which route to take. If you kaow .the route, you do ñor aeed to consult a street directory bm, if -you do /- .noi, yon aeed to wse one, Your problera is compounded if there is more /-.-than one route, You oeed to decide which one to take. The researchprocess is very similar to «ndertaWng a jouriiey. As wíth your drive, for res¿a research journey tbere are aiso two important decisions to make. The ,first is to decide wkaty&u vxznt tofind ouí ab&ut or,-iu otíier words, what ",research questions you want to find answers lo. Having decided upon ,-áyour research quesíions or probiems, you then need to think how to goabouifinding their <mswer$. The path ío fínding answers to your researchquestions coas litares research ¿netliodiolQgy. JuSf as there are posts Tab!(

aloiag the way to your travel destinatiorj, so there are practica! síepsthrough which you musí pass in your research joumey in order to fínd j" ~the answers ío your research questions (Figure 2.1), The sequence of \_°¡fl

these steps is not absolute. With experience you can change it. Ai each L'n>operational step ia the research process you are required ío choose from ¡a muitiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research jmethodoíogy which will help you to besi achieve your objeetives, This ^ _ís where your knowkdge base of research meíhodology plays a crucial I APP

role, iThe aim of this book is to provide j'ou vñúi knowledge that will enabJe I— -—

you to select the most appropriate methods and procedures. The strength í¡.vi.of íhis book ¡íes in anchoring the theoreticai knowledge to íhe posts of the ¡research journey. A srnorgasbord choice at each operation step aims to

Page 3: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

, • ¿ The resesireh procesa: a quíck gfance S 7

provide, at a beginner's levei, knowledge of rnethods and procedures usedboíh by quaiiíative and quantitatíve regearchers, though riie book is moreinclined towards the quantitatíve way of thiaking,

figura 2.1 The research joürney—touch each pose and setect methods and procedures appropriateíor jfQw íOMrnsrj'

Dcciding•whist

Plano ing how Actualiydoing

RESEARCH JOURNEY

Stage I Stagell Smge III

Quamitative aod qualitstive research metihodologies differ in thephilosophy that underpíns their cnode of inquiry as well as, to some exteni,in methods,' models a¡id procedures «sed. Though the research process isbroadly íhe same in both, quaoútative and qualitarive research aredifferentíated in térras of the nsethods of data coliecrion, the proceduresadopted for data processing and analysis, and íhe styie of communicaíionof the findinp. If your research problem lends iíself to a quaiitative modeof jjiquiry, you are more likely to vsse che umtrucmred interview or obseraationas your caethod of data collection. When anaiysing data in quaiiíativeresearch you go darough the process of ideatifying theraes aod describing\vhat you have fouad out duriug yoas interviews or observatkm rather than.subjecting your data to statistieal procedieres. Tabie 2.1 swminarises thedifferences between quaiitative and quantitatíve research.

Tabie 2. i Differaíices beíween quafetjve and quantitaííve research

Oifference wíth respect to: 1 Qws&títativi

Underpinnácig philosophy

a e>C

RaneoatíaoK "That hutnantóngs acbieve teowicdgebecause of titeir capachy toreawn' (Broaard J994: 2)

Qaaíitattve research

Empiricism: "The oníyknowledge that bwnan beiogsacqiaire ís firarn sensoryespEEiences' (Bssroard 1Q94: 2}

Unstroctured/fieiábietapen

TOrv a p

/ &cK»ocVioifN/ i

--4 -

-

Page 4: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

IS Research Mcíhocoíogy

Tabte 2,1—Qintinucd

Dffference «fífc respeff ío:

Mefisarement of variables

Sampie size

Focusof inquáy

Dominant research «alue

Dominam ressarch topk

Analysis of data

ConHuuDícatíon of ándtegs

Qifantitatfve rteseaxh

BiiBpÍKiaás ras aosae fonn ofeiths1 measursínent orcfassíficatios of variables

Enjpfaítsís on -eatcraampie sus

Nairows focus in Kstns of•ian?nl ef inqaiij, trat

freza a -eaier siimber ofrespoadents

ReifebíHty íwd objeoirate(iralue-free)

Bufete presaloice, iacádence,exceut, naíure <rf ássaes3

disccrcws zsguiarities andforannteres ibesjries

Sa&jeíts ?anab!es to ürequency

or eiher staiistíc^ piocediires

OsgaRÍsslíon more anaíytícaliii «ti zisrc;. ckr&wi&g jo&r^nccsaad concÍTusJons, and cesángBMgniíiide and stteagíh oí aislsSjQDStifp

QitafíSatíve researeh

Hmphasis on descripnon of•sarisbies

Fewercasís

Covers múltiple issues buj

*-*««*«*«•

AwJiEEnicity but doss notc¡S5>a to be ralue-free

perceptíons and feeiings

Ssjbfects xspoasss, aasratives orofostu vsjáoít dsts ?o jd^atífessoíjtof lieraes and describes íhcse

OrgsepisaiioB more descnprive' arad nairanve ia natiffe

Siace, ai a aiunber of steps of (he researdh process íhe choice of methodstocedyríes is infliiejiced by qaantásatjve/qualítatíve disriacrioiis the

Enethods and proeedures discussed la some chspters are düferenúatedihoweve?, í haw tried to keep íhis dástüacííon ío the mánimtmi as the mode!is appíicable ío both. Note íbal this book ís for begioijers. There is noteaowgíi K)ace ío cíí er exteusiyeíy tfie appiicabfliry and use of each mediod,model and procedíire. í have eiaborated on those associated withquaotítatrre researcfe 0ior« ibas OH tisose fioked to cpaEístrse research. Fora deeper wíderstasdijig of a metbod or procedure relaóng to eiíher3 youmay wisíh to coas«ií oíher boote fágntíoed m the tea:.

Figure 2.2 shows rhe proposed model. llie tasks identjfíed in arrotos arethe operaiáonal steps yon aeed to foílow la order to coaduct a stydy,qiiantitsrtiye or quaiitatíve. Topícs identífied ín reatantes are !he reqiiired¿eoretlcal taiowledge xseeded to cany ouí ífeese steps. Ule taste ideníifiedáj arete are ¡díte íntensediary steps that yom oeed to complete to go froiaone step to snotber. It fe iapartaat jfor a beginna- to work througb tñeseSTfips in tfae proposed sequence, tiiougís witíi esperience you do not seed tofoilow üie sequence.

Page 5: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

Sl.tX. fta «ÍSeOTtH procesa

The researeh

Reswi'fch cksign;fiuMttions Meihods and

tools fjfdatncoliecdon

Methods oí dataSarapitng ineuíy Prweiplea «£scjeníffie wrMasU*e of compuMra

and stittlstícs

wnting 11re8B!uchptoposnl

CobceptuaJisinsawscnrch

Writinsoi«search

repottfor darácoUection

fíetíisst afthsfosearch

loolDsveloping

a cadabaoltValidiiy and

reliabillty ofthereaearch tool

Comenta oftheresearch proposül

O QpemionalSteps

Required[ j theoreucal

knowledge

O rcequireoimermetHaryknowledge

J V.How Conéuctíng D/the stutly

;»fcjr«*%¿í \í M.t^rAtMW;^VéM^"^rm^¡^^-^ **££„ i _ ^i,"¿««i.' ffr "•*" **««w>vj-««*-~-iTiS»a¡í-;íÍ4«¿Ui5Hia*lÍái-----;::*'

W "»'"»'

f1 !S.fe!!M*,ll

Page 6: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

28

This book is written arownd the theoretical ksowledge required to«adertske each operational step and foilows the saine sequentíaíprogressíon as is aeeded ío underca&e a research investigation. For eacfaoperatíonal step5 the reqtóred tíieoretical kaowledge is fuither organised, indüferent ehapíers, around the operationa! step to wfaich, in íhe author'sopimos, ¿t is JBGSI !ogíca% related (Fígwe 23). Again, for a begkmer,, it isimportant to study this diagram to reiate íhe Áeoretical kaowledge to theopeíatioBai steps,

The foilowíng sectioss of this chapter provide & quick aace at íñe whoíeproce$s to acquaett you with tiae vaiious tasks you aeed to underíake tocairy o«í yowr smdy3 tiius gíviag yon somé idea of what íhe research jouiaeyÍQVOlvES,

Steps in pianning a research studyStep I: íommíating a research probtefnFonnulatsjg a reseaith probien* j's tíie first asd aaost imporaat step in íheresearch proeess. A research problem identifies your destiuation: it shouldteü you, your research supervisor aad your readers mhat you iatend toreseardi. The more specific aad clear you are the better, as evecythmg tíiatfolíows ia íhe researefa proeess—-stiidy desága. iBeasureiaest procedwes,,samplíag strategy, frame of auaiysis aad the style of writiag of yourdissertatioa or repoit—Js greatiy infliieneed by the way in whieh youformúlate your resesrch problein. Henee, you shouid gire it considerableand darefiíl thowght at this stage. The mgin functíon of foronilating aresearch problem is to decide what you want to Snd out abona. Chapter 4deais ¿tj detaü with vgiious aspeéis of fonnulañaag a research probíem-

It ís extrerseiy importaot ío evaiuate the rese¡arch problem in íhe líght of |the financia! resources at yoiw disposal, tíie time avaflable, aad your own -5aad your Jsseíaíieh superróor's espeitise snd kaowledge ía the Seld of srudy. |It is equaJIy importgjBí to idenitify any gaps in your knowkdge of relevant IdisciplÍQes, such as statístícs reqiáred for aaalysás. Aiso5 ask yourself whetiier °you ¿ave siüfficieat too^edge about cojupwtejs aad software if yon plan to *use thejn. £

o•s—^Step fl: cooceptuallslng a research dtesige |

ñn esffismefy iaíporrant feature of a^esidi is tibe use of appropriate methods. £Kesesrch iavoh'es systeaaatic, controlled5 valid,and rigorous exploratioa aad -sdescripción of what is not biown and establisluaent of associations and |csasaúon tiaat persoit the aceurate predioáoa of oíitcomes under a gr?en setof coüdiiQOíis. It aiso áovotes ídent^?ÍBg m toowledge, verificatíon ofwfaat ís aíready taaowu, aud ídeutáfication of past errors and limitations. Thestrengtii ofiohat you find Isrgely tests on feá?lt was fowi&.

The mam fimctioa of a research desíga ís|to explain hozo you wül fíndanswers to your research qwestíons, The research desígn sets oist íhe Jogic

Page 7: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

,5 a, 5-n» 1 K. " g' «w 5 cr E, o

3U3¡ in tlie teok in retstion to the üperntlonal staps

Chspter 7The reacnrch design

ChaptcrSSelccting a sjudy design

Operatíonal sleps assd re$earch methodology

Chnp«r 12Snfflpiíng

35"

Chaptcr 14Cunsictering ethicalssKues in data coüection

Chupter 17Writing a i-cseiirch rtport

t-Wevp4v- 3ífctritvfJ* iwj iKft líteraturetho«p4^r H?oTWW\»-Wng 4 researchpYt>ic¿%.mc-Hc^s-Vtr STdenVtNi^ WtfablcsthqpHrfeto^S^dina hypothese»''(

Chapter 9Seleciing a method ofdata collection

Chapier 10Collecting data usingattituílinal scale»

Cbapter 1 1Estflblishing the vnlidityand reüDbility oí'yourrasearch iostrument

Chaptcr J 3Writing a researchproposal

Chapier 15Processing dura

Chflptcr 16Displaying data ¿i?''

M

Page 8: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

22 Rssean* Methodotegr

of your mquiry, A research desigo. shouid inciude íhe foílowiag: the studydesign per se and the logística] arrangements that yoa propose to undertake,íhe measurement pracedwes-, tíae sampling straregy, the fraroe of aaaiysisand the tinae-frame, For any investigación;, the selección of an appropriateresearch desígn is anucísl in enabiing yon to arrive ar valid findíags,comparisons ajid coaclusioas, A fauity desjgn results m misieading Sndingsaad is íherefore tasit&nioíHit to wgsíieg husjao and financia! resources. In$cientifíc círcles3 íhe strexjgth of aa empírical investigación is primarilyevaluaied ia the H^IÍ of the research.design adopted. WheJí selectiag aresearch design it is ímportaaí to ensure that it is valid, workable andmanageable, Chapter 7 provides detaiís about researda des%n.

Thers ís as eraormoas variety of study designs and yon need ío beacquainied wíth some of ti*e most common o0es. Chapter 8 espiaras someof íhese degjgiEjs, Seiecj ar d^eiop the desiga that as most suiíed to yourstudy, You must ha^e strong reasoas for seiecting a parricuiar desiga; youíirast be able lo justíff yovtr s^ectíosj and yon should be awsre of itestreagths, weafcnesseg aad limitadons. la addition., you wiü aeed to explaáníhe logística! detaiís needecS to implemem the su^ested design.

Step lí¡: constracting an Instrurnent for data coüectionAayíhiag that becomes a aaeans of coilecCuig íoformation for your study iscaEed a "research íool' or a 'research insíJrameat'. For esample^ obserratioBforras, interview schedüJes3 quesaonnaires sud icterview guides are aílclassified as researcfa tools,

The constnactíon of s research too! is the first 'practica!' step in carryingout a study. You wiíl need to decide how you are going to coíiect data forthe proposed study and then construct a research instrument for datacollecáoa. Chapter 9 detaiís dae various methods of data colíecrioB andChapier 10 deals %vith aiethods for eollectüng daca using attitndiaal scaies,

if you are píanaing to coilect data sperífically for your study (primarydata), you need to eíther constracr a research ínstrument or select anaíready cosostmeted oae. The process of eterelopiag a research ijistrameatis aiso díscussed in Chapter 9. The concepta of vaüdiQ? aad reliabülity inrdatáon ío a research instrumeñt are discwssed in Chapter 11.

If yon are «sisg seoondary data (infonnatíoc aiready collected for otherpurposes), dsevelop » forra to extraer the required data. In order todetermine what Information JS reatiired, go through íhe same process asdescribed for prÚRary data above,

Field testíog, also fcoown as pre-tesáag, a research tool is an iniegraí panof msmniieíot constructíoii. As a role, tise field test shotíd not be canied outon ííie sampie of yoiw study bwt oa a similar populación.

If you are píanniag ío ase a eompwíer for data analysis, yo« siay wish íoprovide spaee for coding the data on the research ínsírumeni.

Page 9: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

• . - • • $ > ; > . ! . The research process: a cjuick gUmce 23

Step ÍV: seiecting a sampleThe accuracy of your findings largely dependa apon the way you select yoursarnple. The basic objective of any sampiing design ¿s to minirnise, withiníhe limitaíion of cosí3 the gap berween the valúes obtaiaed from yoursample and those prevalent in the popuiation.

The underiying premise in sampiing is that, if a relariveiy small number ofuniís is selected, it can provide—with a suffidentiy high degree of probability—a feirjy true reflecrion of the sampiing populaticn that is being studied.

Sampiing theory is guided by two principies:

1 the avoidance of bías in the sdection of a saoiple; and2 the attainment oí máximum precisión for a given outiay of resources.

There are three categories of sampiing design (Chapter i 2):

1 random/probability sampling designs;2 non-randoia'probability sampiing designs; and3 'mixed3 sampiing design.

There are severa! sampJíng strategies widxin the ñrsí two categories. Youneed to be acquainted with ¿bese sarapling designs to seíect the one mostappropriate for your study. You aeed to know the sírengtiis and weaknessesof each and íhe situatíons ia which íhey can or cannot be applied in orderto select the most appropriate design. The type of sampiing strategy you useaiso determines your ability to generalise from the sample to íhe totalpopuiation and the type of síatistieaí tests yon can perforen on the data.

Step V: writing a ressarch proposalNew, step by step, you have done al! the preparatory work. Next puteverythtng together ia a way that provides adequate Information, for yourresearch supervisor and others, abouí your research study. This overail plantelis a reader abouc your research problem and how you are platming toinvestígate, and is calied a research proposal. Broadly., a research proposal'smain foncdon is to detall the operationai pian for obtainiug answers to yourresearch questions, In doing so it ensures—and reassures the readers of—the validity of die metbodology to obtain answers accurateiy and ob)ecüvely.

Universities and other instituíions may have dirlering requirementsregarding the sryie and content of a research proposal, but íhe majority ofinstitutions would require most of what is set out here. Requirements mayalso vary within an institution, from discipline to discipline or fromsupervisor to supervisor. However, the guidslines set ouí in Chapter 13provide a framework which wül be acoeptable to most.

A research proposal must teli you, your research supervisor and areviewer the foliowing information about your study:

• tchaí you are proposing to do;

líí '

Page 10: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

24 Resasndh MeíhofiQtog/

a sísosmeot oí the objectivss of íhe study;a üsí of hypotheses, If you are íesting any;tfae .#«4}j áes^K you are proposing to me;the setóng for your snadyjthe researeh insmtment(s) you are plauning to use;iafonaaóoo OB sompk me aad mmpling design;mformaíion on dota-processing procederes;aa ouílíne of me proposed chaptm for die report;the stndy's probleens and Kmttaúonsr, andthe proposed ñme-frame.

Steps in cooductiog a studyStep Vi: coliectíng dataHaviag fonmulated a regearch problesa, developed a síudy desigs, coa-structed a research instnaneat aad seíected a sarnpüe, yon ¿en collect íhedata from whidí you will dimy üifereaces and coBclusioiis for your study.

Many meiisods could-be i sed to gather tiie required iufoniiation. As aparí of íhe researeh desíge, you decided opon the procedure you wanted toadopt to coílect your data. Ai ikis stage you aemally coBect tke data. Forexazaple3 dependiag wpon your pians, you sright cosansence iaterviews,rnaU o»t a questiounaíre, conduct aoíniaai/íbcused group dlscussions or¡make obser?stioBS, Coíl ctíag data tíiroii^s any cae of íhe metíiods mayInvolve sojae eíhícal isswes, wlaích ®re <Jáseussed ín Chapter 14.

Step VH; processíng dataITie way you analyse tíie Infonoarion yow coUeeted iargely depeads iipontwo things:

1 íype of iofdnBatkm—d«scriptive3 quaatitative3 guaíitatíve or attkudinal;2 the way you waüt EO coBMniíiíícaíe your fiacüags to yo«r readeis.

There are íwo broad categories of report; quaatiíame and qualitative.As mentioEed earlíer, tlíg dístínctioii ís more aeadesiíc thaa real as inmost studies you need to combine giiantitatíre and qualitative sídiis.Neveiíhekss, there are soiae SQÜely quajitatiye and soxne solely quantitativestudües. Chapter 15 describes dífisreat ways of asialysiag quantiíati-ve dataaad Chapter 16 details various meüiods of displaying analysed data.

In additíoe to tíae qiaalítative-qtiantiíatjve distinctíon, it is equaíiyimportant for 4sía aaalygis thaí yon consider whether íhe data is to beanalysed maniíally or by a computen.

If yoor study is purely deseriptivs, you cau write your dissertation/reporton the basis ofyoiír fieid aotes> ¡usoualiy aaalyse the 'Coateots of your notes(contení analysis}, or use a coíBpater program suida as NUD*DIST N6,NVIVO or Ethaop^aph for dais purpose.

If you want quaatítstáve analysis, it is aiso aecessary to decide uposi thetype of anaiysis reqmired (i.e, frequency dístnbution, cross-tabulations or

o¡aiVi

Siwreyefiíalinbítti

Tbtremtneain;frcgi^antoW

frcanva

Page 11: Week 6 - The Research Process an Eight-step Model Ch 2 Kumar 2005

C? .apfer 2 Tfie rseardi procos: a qwick giancs 23

odier statistkal procediares3 such as regyessáon. aaalysis, factor aiialysis andanalysis of wriance) and how it shoaid be presented. Also identiíy thevariables ío be $ubjected to tóese smüstical proeedures.

Step VIH: writínf a research reportWritÍBg tíie rqport is ífae íasí and, for manj, the raost diScuit step of theresearch proeess. TMs repon lafonas fes world what yvu have doBe5 whatyou have díscovered and what oonchisious you have drawn frora yourfedío^. If you aire clear áboat the whole process., you wüi siso be clearabout tiie way you want to vmte yowr report. YOIÍT report shouíd be wnttenin an academic style and fes dwíded into dífferení chapters and/or seetionsbased upon the maía tbeajes ofyour study. Chapter 17 suggests some ofthe ways of wririBg a rgsearcb repott.

con-t theidy.As aedto. Foriews,as or, rnay

upon

dinai;

radve.i as inskiiis.itative'e data

qualiy¡ to be

Thís chapter has prcmded aa ovemew of the research procos, which hasbeen broken into eight steps5 the deíails of which are covered in íhereinainder of thís book Ai each step the modei provides a smorgasbord ofmethods, modeísa tecímiques and procedures so you can seiect the onemost appropriate for yoiar swdy. It is like a buffet party with eight tables,egch with different díshes3 but the dishes- are made out of similaringredients, You go to aJl eight tabíes aad seíecí the dish that you like mostfroni eacfa table. The suaia diSetenee between the modd and the examplegiven is tíiat in the EBodei you seíecí what is most appropriate for ycmr studyand not what you üke the saost, as in a buffet. For a beginaer it is inaportantto go through ali the steps, slthough peihaps not ia the saine seqwmce.Wiífc esperieace yo» caá take a number of shoit cuts.

The eígbst steps co?er die total spectrum of a research esdeaTOur3 startingfrom problem formulatíoa íhnsíi a to miting a research repon, The stepsare opexatíoasí ín nature, followiag a lo^ca! sequence, and detafliug theyarious methods and procederes in a sinapíc step-by-step manner.