Week Four

Dr. Stephen OgdenLIBS 7001

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CLASSIFICATION - a review• helps writers and readers come to grips with large

and complex topics• breaks down broad topics into categories according

to a specific principle chosen based on audience & purpose

• presents distinctive features of each category• shows how features vary among categories• is a common feature of daily life; helps people make

choices. When does classification become limiting?When can it be humorous?

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Developing Categories• Choose a principle of classification suited to

purpose and audience• Divide one or more categories into

subcategories -- but not too many!• Avoid overlapping categories• Develop each category with specific,

informative details

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DEFINITION - a review• Defining is a basic philosophical technique, not a

simple consultation of a dictionary.

• for Plato (4th c. BCE philosopher), “knowledge is attained only when humans recognize the true nature of virtue and the good”-- that is, define them, and distinguish them from all others.

• Definition is, in a sense, Creation

Definition of ‘Define’+ example of what a definition is.

• ME., a. Anglo-F. and OF. define-r to end, terminate, determine = Pr. definar; a Romanic parallel form to L. dfnre to end, terminate, bound (f. DE- I. 3 + fnre to end, FINISH), whence It. definire, Sp. definir, Pr. and OF. defenir, definir. Definer, the common form in OF., is the only form given by Cotgr. 1611, and survives in Picard, but has been superseded in F. by définir, with adoption of the transferred senses of L. dfnre. In mod. English also define is in sense the representative of L. dfnre. A parallel form diffnre, with dis- (see DE- I. 6) is also found in Latin texts, and the forms diffiner, desfinir, diffinir (14-17th c.) in F.; thence the Eng. variants in deff-, diff-, dyff-.]

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Denotation and Connotation (OED)– denotation: marking, noting; expression by marks, signs, or

symbols; indication. • b. term employed to denote or describe a thing; a designation.

– connotation: The signifying in addition; inclusion of something in the meaning of a word besides what it primarily denotes; implication.

• b. that which is implied in a word in addition to its essential or primary meaning.

E.g. “home” • one’s dwelling place; native land• can suggest comfort, intimacy, security, affection

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Some types of definitions & related terms

1) synonyms2) essential definitions3) extended definitions4) acronyms5) neologisms6) problems definitions: arbitrary,

subjective, polemical

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(1) Synonyms• words with very nearly the same meanings

– loathe detest– troublesome vexatious

• not identical twins -- have different shades of meaning. Examples: – objectprotest gripe – marriagecivil union merger– Synonyms are convenient & helpful, but imprecise

• Use the thesaurus carefully - in conjunction with a dictionary!

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(2) Essential Definitions—natural definitions

• their structure goes back to ancient Greeks, esp. Plato & Aristotle.

• The Phaedrus : “cut up each kind according to its species along its natural joints”

• Natural Definitions do three things, in sequence: 1. names the item being defined

to parboil2. places it in a broad category

is to boil meat, vegetables, or fruit3. distinguishes it from other items in that category

until they are partially cooked.

(2b) Essential Definitions: Ostensive Definitions

• Concrete objects, pointed to:– Point toward a rabbit to a person who doesn’t

speak your language– You repeat the sound “rabbit!” ”rabbit!” whilst

pointing– The hearer then copies you.– Hence, an ostensive definition.

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Essential Definitions: Limits

• can’t do full justice to – abstract terms (justice, love)– words which have several meanings (tap).

• are prone to 5 problems: (1) overly broad(2) overly narrow(3) omission of main category (“is where...”)

Essential Definitions: Limits• (4) Circular (petitio principii: “begging the

question.”)– to assume as a premis what needs to be established a a

conclusion• The world is good follows from God’s goodness; that God is

good is known from the excellence of the world.• Presence of Evil proves that God does not exist; if God existed

there would be no Evil in the world.• (5) Tautology: “saying the same thing.”)

– All bachelors are unmarried men– The ebb and flow of the game went backwards and

forwards• Pleonasm: wet water; sharp cut; ATM machine

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Identify broad category & distinguishing features in these definitions *

CONNOISSEUR, n. A specialist who knows everything about something and nothing about anything else.

CONSULT, v.i. To seek another's disapproval of a course already decided on.

PEACE, n. In international affairs, a period of cheating between two periods of fighting.

POLITENESS, n. The most acceptable hypocrisy. RESOLUTE, adj. Obstinate in a course that we approve.

* from Ambrose Bierce, The Devil’s Dictionary, (1881-1906)

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(3) Extended Definitions

• Discuss: “Definitions are always social creations” (SSW,

237), and extended definitions are “fundamental to your career and your life” (SSW, 230)

• Extended definitions– go beyond essential definitions; can be a paragraph in a

longer paper or report, or an entire text. – are useful when defining new terms and terms with more

than one meaning– use many different methods of development

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Strengths of Development Methods narration - gives history, show changing meaning description - points out interesting / imp't. features process - explains how something works / happened illustration - defines abstract terms; tracing changes in meaning comparison - distinguishes between familiar / unfamiliar items cause and effect - explains origins and consequences of events,

conditions, attitudes; places limits on conditions & events negation - places limits on conditions/events; corrects popular

misconceptions

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(4) Acronyms• words formed from first letters of multi-word names• can include slang, technical or professional terms• examples:

– EI employment Insurance– f2f face to face – LOL laughing out loud– TLC tender loving care

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Acronyms, cont. • can identify members of discourse communities• may also suggest

– lack of time / busyness / pretentiousness – flaunting of insider knowledge & authority – intent to exclude, disconcert, or “one-up” the listener or

reader • Exercise: Using 2 or more acronyms, craft a sentence

aimed at other members of a “discourse community” you know.

• A PH and SME at BCIT, I consulted an IDC at the LTC about an SSHRC application, after my AD gave the OK.

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(5) Neologisms• “new words”• . a. A word or phrase which is new to the language;

one which is newly coined. • examples

– bling– pharma– truthers– beautalize

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(6) Problems w/ Definitions- see K. Lewis, pp. 71-76

• Can be arbitrary, subjective, purposeful (polemical)• Definitions exist within a system of social and power

relations, often serving a specific agenda, even while appearing “objective”

• examples – ‘conservative’– ‘Pro-Choice’– ‘hope & change’

Humpty Dumpty (in Through the Looking Glass by British logician Lewis Carroll.)

• "I don't know what you mean by 'glory,'" Alice said.Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously. "Of course you don't – till I tell you. I meant 'there's a nice knock-down argument for you!'""But 'glory' doesn't mean 'a nice knock-down argument,'" Alice objected."When I use a word," Humpty Dumpty said in a rather a scornful tone, "it means just what I choose it to mean – neither more nor less.""The question is," said Alice, "whether you can make words mean different things.""The question is," said Humpty Dumpty, "which is to be master – that's all."Alice was too much puzzled to say anything....

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To address “definition problems”

• . . . . ask questions identified by K. Lewis, pp. 75-76, esp.– whose interests are served by this definition?– is the definition prescriptive or descriptive?– what authority is evoked? who “backs up” this definition?

• Paradox of the nominalist (left wing) position (K. Lewis, e.g.): ‘definition is arbitrary in nature’ is spoken as a non-arbitrary—universalist—definition!

Common Sense Approach

• There is, fortunately, a practical approach to the type of “problems” detailed in the articles for this week, for those of us who are not (or, not only) academics.

• A common-sense practice: assume a stable definition (e.g. “truck”), but see any uncertainty or issue as simply a matter of classification:– “does this vehicle belong in the category ‘truck’ ?

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Peter Mark Roget

• 1779-1869• British doctor, natural

theologian and lexicographer• His thesaurus is a method of

organising his thoughts ideas and words for writing and public speaking.

• A thesaurus is not a synonym generator.

– “Thesaurus” = treasure-house or storehouse