werle - einstein's big break

8/2/2019 Werle - Einstein's Big Break

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EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905NicholasWerleBrownUniversity10

Majors:Physics,ModernCriticalPhilosophy

(516)[email protected]


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EinsteinsBigBreak:OntheMiracleYearof1905

Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,physicistsdeclaredtheirscience

complete.Themechanicsofmatterwaswellunderstood:accordingtoNewtons

lawsofmotionandresearchersmodels,thedynamicsoffluids,optics,andsound

wavesweregrowingmorerefined.JamesClerkMaxwellhadrecentlyformulated

thepropagationofelectromagneticwavesinfourrelativelysimpleequations.

Drivenbymathematicalformalisms,hederivedrelationshipsbetweentraveling

electricandmagneticdisturbancesthatdefiedanysimplephysicalexplanationsbut

seemedtopreciselydescribeexperimentalphenomena.Thiswasnottosaythere

wasnotworktobedonebutmostphysicistsbelievedfutureprogresswouldmainly

consistofexperimentalrefinementsandmoreprecisemeasurementsofthe

universesfundamentalconstants.

Withinthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethcentury,however,physicistsfound

themselvesstrugglingtounderstandthemostfundamentalfeaturesoftheuniverse

includingtheshapeofspace,themeaningoftime,thecharacteristicsofmatter,and

thenatureoflight.Insteadofputtingthefinishingtouchesonagrandedificeof

completedknowledgeoftheuniverse,twentiethcenturyphysicistswereconsumed

byaracetodisassemblethatverysystemandfindsomestablegroundonwhichto

rebuild.Thisradicalreversalwasneithereasytobeginnorsimpleforgreatmindsto


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acceptbut,onceitsnecessitywasrealized,newfieldsofpossibleknowledgeswere

openedtoscience.

Thisjoltingbeginningtomodernphysicswasnotatransitionthatlogically

followedfromtheknowledgeofatriumphantclassicalphysicsbutratheraradical

discontinuitywithwhatcamebefore.In1905,AlbertEinstein,anunknownGerman

physicistworkingasapatentexaminerinBern,publishedaseriesofshortpapers

onBrownianmotion,thequantumnatureoflight,andtheelectrodynamicsof

movingbodiesinoneofthemostastoundingburstsofcreativityinthehistoryof

thought.Theseideas,afteryearsoflaborioustheoreticalelaboration,werethestart

ofamajorbreakwiththephysicalknowledgeofthepast.WhileEinsteinwasnot

abletocontinueworkingthisbreakthroughitscontinualbattleagainstclassical

ideologyindeed,hewouldspendhislateryearsfightingagainsttheveryconcepts

thatfollowedfromhisdiscoveriesinthemiracleyearof1905theconjunctureof

hisreadingofnineteenthcenturyphysicswiththerecentphysicaldiscoveriesof

MichaelFaraday,Maxwell,andMaxPlanckandthemathematicalformalismsof

BernhardRiemannsnonEuclideangeometryproducedanewphysicalproblematic.

Thisproblematicpermittedthedevelopmentofquantummechanicsandrelativity

theory,thecornerstonesofthenewedificeofmodernphysics.

AnAlthusserianreadingofmodernphysicsisaninterestingprojecton

multipleregisters.Thispaperwillarguethatquantumandrelativityphysicsisthe

firsttrulyAlthusserianhardscience.Wecanreaditsbirthasabreakinthestrong

sense:theproductionofanewscientificproblematicfromareadingofthe

contradictions,seams,andlacunaeintheideologicalframeworkthatcamebefore.


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Applyingthisreadingtoahardscience(hardscienceshouldbeunderstoodinthe

Americansensetomeanthestudyofthestructureofthephysicalworld,especially

thedomainsofphysics,chemistry,biology,astronomy,geology,etc)providesa

uniqueopportunitytorefinetheAlthusseriannotionofscienceintoaconceptthatis

atleastprovisionallystableandconnectedwiththeotherepistemologicalnotionsof

thebreak,theproblematic,theencounter,andideology.Unfortunately,thescaleof

thisprojectpreventsthissinglepaperfromprovidingclosureonanyoftheseissues.

Therefore,theseargumentsshouldbetakenasthefirstnotesforamuchlarger

investigationofphysicalscience.

Thefoundingofmodernphysicsasascienceisnottheonlytargetofthis

reading;thecontentofthisnewproblematicisalsoparticularlyAlthusserian.In

contrastwiththeidealismoftheNewtonianmodel,quantummechanicsand

relativityuseconceptsthataremorefluidtounderstandthephysicalnatureofthe

universe.Theproblematicofmodernphysicsdispenseswithabsolutereferentiality

notionsofabsolutespace,motion,andtimelosetheirmeaninginthisnew

problematiccontinuity,andlinearcausality,infavorofrelativitysfabricofspace

time,quantummechanicsdiscretizedenergyandlight,nonEuclideangeometrys

fieldeffectivityandfundamentalindeterminacy.TheCopenhageninterpretation

challengedthenotionsofobjectivephysicalrealityandtransparentexperimentation

thatwerepreviouslytakenasfundamentalontologicalassumptions.Finally,

quantummechanicsandrelativityassertedtheexistenceofabsolutephysicallimits

onvelocitiesandenergiesthateliminatedidealistnotionsofinfinitespeedandzero


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energy.Yetthisisonlythebeginningofthelistoftheintenselystrangeresultsof

modernphysics.

Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,thesuccessofMaxwellsequations

thoroughlyconvincedthephysicscommunitythatlightandelectromagnetic

radiationtraveledinwaves.Countlessexperimentshadalsoproducedcharacteristic

interferencepatternswithbeamsoflightorelectromagneticradiation,allowing

researcherstodeterminethewavelengthsofthesedisturbances.Nevertheless,

thereweretwoareasinwhichclassicalphysicstheoreticalunderstandingof

electromagnetismbrokedown.First,theproblemoflightpropagationledphysicists

toposittheexistenceoftheether,amediumthatallowedthetransmissionoflight

andfilledallspace.Butitprovedundetectable.Second,theproblemofblackbody

radiation(asolidbodyemitsacertainspectrumofelectromagneticradiation

dependingontemperature)wasincomprehensibletotheclassicaltheoryoflight.

Thesedifficultiesweresymptomsoftheproblemswiththeproblematicofclassical

physics.ThegeniusofEinstein,however,wasnotanyexperimentalone.Instead,

Einsteinwasabletorefoundphysicsinatrulyscientificproblematic.Heproduceda

newmodeoftheoreticalpracticebasedondeductivereasoning,whichallowed

theoreticalphysicstomoveaheadofexperimentationforthefirsttime.Becausehis

instinctualapproachwassensitivetotheepistemologicalconcernsofscience,

Einsteinsucceededineffectingaprimarybreakwithclassicalmechanics,rejecting

Newtonianidealism,andproducingaproperobjectofknowledgeforhisnew

science.


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FromtheEthertoSpecialRelativity

Classically,wavestransmitenergythroughspacebycausingvibrationsor

rarefactionsinsomemedium,suchaswater,air,orastring.Indeed,thevery

conceptofawavewasunthinkablewithoutsomevibratingsubstance.Sincelight

wasknowntotransmitthroughavacuum,physicistswereforcedtofindsome

vibratingsubstancethattransmittedlight,evenwhenacontainerwasapparently

empty.Thesolutiontothisproblemwastoposittheexistenceoftheluminiferous

ether,asubstancethatfilledallspaceandvibratedtoallowthetransmissionoflight.

Themoreexperimentallyobservedfeaturesoflightpropagationthatwereincluded

inthistheory,themoreoutrageouscharacteristicstheetherwasrequiredto

possess.Theetherwasrequiredtobealiquidinordertofillspacebutalso

incrediblyrigidinordertopermitlightshighfrequencyvibrations.Inorderto

preventthedisruptionofotherphysicalsuccessessuchasthecalculationsof

planetaryorbits,theetheralsohadtobeinvisible,incompressible,andmassless

withzeroviscosity.

AsEinsteinwasgrowingup,thephysicscommunitywasworkingtirelessly

tosomehowdetecttheether.Themostfamousand(un)successfulattemptwasan

experimentconductedbyAlbertMichelsonandEdwardMorleyinCleveland,Ohio.

Theacceptedtheorypositedthattheetherfilledtheentireuniverse,whichmeantit

wastheabsoluterestframeoftheuniverse.Sincelightshouldpropagateata

constantspeedthroughtheether,lightshouldappeartomoveatadifferentspeed

inrelationtotheEarthastheplanetmovesthroughtheetherwind.Michelsonand


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Morleysapparatusincludedasemisilveredmirrorthatsplitalightbeamandsent

itinorthogonaldirectionsbeforereunitingitataninterferometer.Becauseonearm

ofthedeviceshouldbepointinginthedirectionoftheetherwind,theypredicted

thelightinthatdirectionwouldtakelongertotravelthroughtheapparatusthanthe

lighttravelingorthogonaltotheetherwind.Fortunately,noamountofinsulation,

refinementoradjustmentwasabletoproduceanyresults.Buttheetherwasso

essentialtothedominanttheoriesoflightpropagationthatphysicistscontinuedto

struggletoexplaintheresultsintermsofnewerandmoreelaboratetheoriesofthe

ether.

Einsteinhadstruggledwiththeproblemoftheethersincehistimestudying

attheZurichPolytechnicInstitute.Whileheworkedwithhisprofessors,whowere

occupiedwithtryingtodevisemoresophisticatedetherdetectionmethods,hewas

certainlyexposedtoMichelsonsexperimentalfailure,amongothers.Butthese

experimentaldatahadarguablylittleimpactonEinstein;throughouthislife,he

maintainedthathisobjectionstotheinclusionoftheetherinphysicswerepurely

theoretical.1In1899hewrotetoMilevaMaric,hisclassmateandfuturewife,that

theintroductionofthetermetherintotheoriesofelectricityhasledtothe

conceptionofamediumwhosemotioncanbedescribedwithout,Ibelieve,being

abletoascribephysicalmeaningtoit.2ThisremarkrevealsthepowerofEinsteins

subtlereadingofexistingtheoreticaldiscourse.Ofcoursetheetherequations

workedwithinthelogicofclassicalphysics,foritwasatheoreticallyrequired

addition.YetEinsteinwasabletoworkthislogicagainstitselftodeterminehowthe

1WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007),116222Ibid.115.


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stringentrequirementsplacedontheetherproducedanartifactthatexpressed

noneofthephysicalqualitiesascribedtoanyrealsubstance.

WhiletheproblemoftheetherpresentedEinsteinwithstrongevidencethat

therewerefundamentalproblemswithclassicalphysics,hewouldlaterinsistitwas

nottheetherthatdrovehisthinkingtowardsthetheoryofspecialrelativity.

Throughouthislife,Einsteincontinuallydeclaredthathismethodwasentirely

deductive;hereliedalmostexclusivelyonabstractthoughtexperiments,thoughhe

laterincludedabstractmathematics(nonEuclideangeometry)inhistheoretical

arsenal.Thiswasasignificantdeparturefromthemethodologyofthetime,which

countedentirelyonexperimentationandinductiveexplanationsofobserveddata.

ButEinsteinthoughtlittleofatheorythatfollowsinthewakeofexperimentation.

Thebigadvancesinscientificknowledgeoriginateinthiswayonlytoa

smalldegree,wroteEinsteinaboutinduction.3Indeed,itwasthroughafaulty

inductiveapproachthatphysicswassidetrackedfornearlyacenturybythe

ideologicalillusionoftheether.

InanAlthusserianepistemology,theinductiveapproachwouldcertainlybe

dismissedasaharmfulempiricistpractice.Relyingonempiricismrisksbeing

incapableofmakingthescienceprogress,sincewewillbeblindtothenatureofthe

realprocessoftheproductionofknowledges,andwillremaininthewakeoffacts

andevents.4Inordertobreakwiththeclassicalproblematic,Einsteinhadto

developanewmodeofproductionofknowledgethatworkedtoshedtheideological

3Ibid.118.4LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology

andideologicalstruggleInPhilosophyandthespontaneousphilosophyofthescientistsandotheressaysed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990),14


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assumptionsofthepast.Atruetheoreticalscience,farfromreflectingthe

immediategivensofeverydayexperienceandpractice,isconstitutedonlyonthe

conditionofcallingthemintoquestion,andbreakingwiththem,totheextentthat

itsresultsappearindeedasthecontraryoftheobviousfactsofeverydaylife.5

Thiseffortisnotdirectedonlyatindividuallyfalsefacts,butanentiresystemof

ideologicalbeliefs(forideologypositsobviousnessesasobviousnesses)that

standsinthewayofscientificprogress.6(Ameasureofthemagnitudeofthisbreak

withinduction:ittookEinsteinuntil1921towinaNobelPrizebecausetheSwedish

experimentalistswhocontrolledtheawardjudgedhisworkwastooabstractand

theoretical.)

Hisdeductivemethodwasthebeginningofexactlythisnewtypeof

theoreticalpractice,onespecifictoandresponsiblefortheoreticalphysics.Forthe

firsttime,theoreticalworkwasreachingaheadofexperimentalprogressinanew

modeofknowledgeproductionuniquetotheobjectoftheoreticalphysics.To

properlyconstituteascienceistoproducetheadequateconceptoftheobjectby

puttingtoworkmeansoftheoreticalproductionappliedtoagivenrawmaterial.

Thisproductionofknowledgeinagivenscienceisaspecificpracticewhichshouldbe

calledtheoreticalpracticeaspecificpracticedistinctfromotherexistingpractices

andabsolutelyirreplaceableatitslevelandinitsfunction.7WhileEinsteinbegan

withhisthoughtexperiments,histheoreticalpracticematuredwithhis5Ibid.15.6LouisAlthusser,IdeologyandIdeologicalStateApparatuses:NotesTowardsan

InvestigationinLeninandPhilosophyandOtherEssays(NewYork,MonthlyReviewPress,2001),1167LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyandideologicalstruggle,15


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understandingofhisobject.Bythetimehewasworkingtogeneralizehisspecial

theoryofrelativityin1915,Einsteinhadfullyrealizedthevalueofabstract

mathematics.Indeed,bythistimeitwasRiemannsworkonmetrictensorsthatwas

drivinghisunderstandingofthenonEuclideangeometryofspacetime,leadinghim

tosuccessfullyformalizegeneralrelativity.

Todaystheoreticalphysiciststakethisuniquetheoreticalpracticetoan

extreme.Asadiscipline,particlephysicsaimstopredicttheexistenceofnewkinds

ofmatterthatmightexistonlyinveryspecificscenarios,suchastheuniverseinthe

momentsaftertheBigBang.Becausedecadesmightelapsebetweenthetheoretical

discoveryofaparticleandexperimentalobservation,thedisciplinestheoretical

apparatusmusthavetheabilitytodeterminethetruthofaparticularidea

independently.ThepresentsearchfortheHiggsBosonattheLargeHadronCollider

isaperfectexampleofhowfartheorycanrunaheadofexperimentalcapability

today.ForAlthusser,thisisahallmarkofaproperlyconstitutedscience.Atruly

scientifictheoreticalpracticeisindeeditsowncriterion,andcontainsinitself

definiteprotocolstovalidatethequalityofitsproduct.Once[sciences]aretruly

constitutedanddevelopedtheyhavenoneedforverificationfromexternalpractices

todeclaretheknowledgestheyproducetobetrue,i.e.,tobeknowledges.8Indeed,

theLHCisthelargest,mostcomplex,mostexpensivemachineinthehistoryof

humanity.ItwasbuiltbyCERN,aninternationalconsortium,solelyonfaithinthe

rigorofphysiciststheoreticalpractice.

8LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.BenBrewster(London:Verso,1997),59.


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Asconfoundingasparticlephysicsis,stringtheoryisevenfartherremoved

fromexperiment.Scientistssearchingforaunifiedfieldtheoryofeverythinghave

beenworkingonstringtheoryfordecadeswithoutanyhopeofexperimental

verification.Stringtheoryprobesthefabricoftheuniverseonsuchsmalldistance

scalesthattheoristsestimatethataparticlecolliderwouldhavetobecapableof

producingenergiesmorethanonemillionbilliontimesashighastheLHCinorder

totestthetheoryspredictions.9Thesepredictions,whicharetheresultsproduced

byhighlyabstractmathematicalarguments,makesuchcounterintuitiveclaimsas

anelevendimensionalspacetime.Today,thereissignificantdebatewithinthe

scientificcommunityaboutwhetherstringtheorycanevenbeconsidereda

scientifictheoryifitis(currentlyandfortheforeseeablefuture)untestable.

Ultimately,thisisnotascientificdebateaboutthenatureoftheuniversebuta

philosophicaldebateabouttheacceptablemodesoftheoreticalpracticeinphysics.

Clearly,noneofthiswouldhavebeenpossibleintheproblematicofclassical

physics,whichwasneithercapableofposingthesekindsofabstractquestionsin

advanceofexperimentalevidencenorabletoevaluateaclaimwithouttestable

claims.

Soifitwasnothisskepticismabouttheexistenceoftheetherthatdrove

Einsteinsthoughtstowardspecialrelativity,wheredidhisdeductivemethodbegin?

Later,hewouldclaimnottobeabletocompletelyuntanglethepreciseseriesof

thoughtsleadinghimtospecialrelativity,butitsurelystartedwithathought

experimenthehadbeenponderingforyears.Einsteinhadspentagreatdealoftime

9BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003),141.


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thinkingaboutwhatitwouldbeliketoobservealightbeamwhiletravelingatthe

speedoflight.Hestartedwithwhatwasalongheldbeliefintheprincipleof

relativity,whicharguedthatthelawsofphysicsshouldbethesameforany

observerinaninertialreferenceframe(anobservertravelingataconstantspeedin

thesamedirection).Galileohadprovedthistoholdforclassicalmechanics,but

Einsteinbelievedthatitshouldholdforallphysicallaws,includingMaxwells

equations.

ThisfirstpostulatereceiveditsforcefromEinsteinsthinkingabouta

particularlytroublesomeasymmetryintheclassicaltheoryofelectrodynamicsthat

cametohisattentionwhilehelpinghisfatherengineersomeinductorsforan

electricgenerator.(Inductanceisthepropertybywhichanalternatingmagnetic

fieldisabletoinduceacurrenttoflowinaseparatecoilofwire.)Accordingto

classicalelectrodynamics,thereweredifferentequationsgoverningthesituation

whenamagnetwasmovedpastastationarywirecoilandwhenawirecoilwas

movedpastastationarymagnet.Einsteincouldnotfathomwhythesetwosituations

shouldbedistinct,sincetherelevantphysicalchangewastherelativemotionofthe

twoobjects.EvenGalileanrelativitysuggestedthatthereshouldbenomechanical

waytodeterminewhichobjectsinertialreferenceframewasatrest.Yet

electromagnetictheorydidhaveathirdtermtodefinethestateofabsoluterest:the

ether,whichallegedlytransmittedtheelectromagneticwavesbetweenthemagnet

andthewire.Withouttheether,therewouldbenoneedtoformallyexplainthetwo

physicallyidenticalscenariosdifferently.


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ThisasymmetrywasthekeytoEinsteinsformalrejectionoftheetherinhis

seminalspecialrelativitypaper,OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies.

Restoringthelogicalunitytotheproblemofinductancesuggest[s]thatthe

phenomenaofelectrodynamicsaswellasofmechanicspossessnoproperties

correspondingtotheideasofabsoluterest.[Thus]theintroductionofalight

etherwillprovetobesuperfluous,inasmuchastheviewtobedevelopedherewill

notrequireaspaceatabsoluterest.10ThisisthefirststepofEinsteinsbreakwith

theproblematicofclassicalphysics.Removingtheconceptofabsoluterestthereby

assertingthefundamentalrelativityofmotioncollapsestheapparentasymmetry,

whichhadbeenallowedtopersistforsolongbecauseitwasnotstrictlywrong

accordingtothelogicoftheoldproblematic.Indeed,theasymmetrywasasymptom

ofthatfaultylogicitself.

ForAlthusser,thissymptomaticreadingistheexactprocessnecessaryto

foundanew,scientificproblematic.InReadingCapital,hearguesthatMarxs

achievementwasnottheabilitytoseewhatbourgeoispoliticaleconomycouldnot

theanswertothequestionwhatisthevalueoflabor?butthesensetoexplain

thenon-visioninsideitsvisionbyarticulatingtheabsenceswithinitstext.11In

arguingfortherelativitypostulate,Einsteinaccomplishedasimilarfeat,whichcan

beexplainedbyreformulatingAlthusser:Itisnot[Einstein]whosayswhatthe

classicaltextdoesnotsay,itisnot[Einstein]whointervenestoimposefrom

withoutontheclassicaltextadiscoursewhichrevealsitssilenceitistheclassical

10WalterIsaacson,Einstein,12711LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,23


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textitselfwhichtellsusthatitissilent:itssilenceinitsownwords.12Heneither

positedtheidentityoftheetherasthestateofabsoluterestnorcreatedthe

asymmetryintheexplanationofinductance.Instead,hewasabletoshowthelogical

absenceintheclassicalproblematicitselfthatishowthetwoinductancescenarios

couldbephysicallydistinguished.Thisabsenceintheclassicalproblematicwasthe

kindofriftwiththerealityitsupposedlyrepresented,andthatisindicativeofafalse

problematic.Here,Newtonianphysicsrevealedafundamentalmisunderstandingof

itsowntheoreticalobject.

Einsteinssecondpostulateinvolvedthevelocityoflight.Thereweretwo

possibleexplanationsforthepropagationoflight.Iflightwerecomposedof

particlesitwouldnotneedanetherealmediumbutitsvelocitywoulddependonthe

speedofitssource.(Imaginehowabulletshotstraightaheadfromafastmovingcar

wouldgetaspeedboost,relativetotheground,comparedtoabulletshotfroma

gunatrestrelativetotheground.)Thispossibilitywassupportedbytheresearch

intolightquantaEinsteinhadrecentlycompleted.Yetiflightbehavedmorelikea

wave,thenitwouldtravelataconstantspeed(c=2.98x108m/s)regardlessofthe

motionofitssourceorobserver.(Thisisanalogoustothebehaviorofsound,which

travels770milesperhourinairnomatterhowfastitssourceismoving.The

motionofthesourceortheobservermerelyaffectstheperceivedfrequencyofthe

tone;thisisknownastheDopplereffect).Aftermucheffortexpendedtoadapt

Maxwellsequationstoexplainthefirstpossibility(anemissiontheoryoflight),

Einsteinsettledonthesecondoption.Fromthislogicheproducedthelight

12Ibid.22.


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postulate:Lightalwayspropagatesinemptyspacewithadefinitevelocitythatis

independentofthestateofmotionoftheemittingbody(Isaacson,120).

OverwhelmingastronomicalevidenceallstarlightreachesEarthatthesamespeed

validatedthischoice.

However,whenEinsteincombinedthesetwopostulatesinhisthought

experimentstheyappearedtocontradicteachother.Ifarayoflightweresentdown

arailroadtrack,itwouldappeartotravelpastastationaryobserver(someone

standingontheground)atc.Yetifanotherobserverwereonatrainmovingat0.4c

inthesamedirectionasthelightbeam,Einsteinrealizedthatthelightmightseemto

betravelingat0.6c.Accordingtotherelativitypostulate,thereshouldbenophysical

methodtodeterminewhichobserverisatrestinanyabsolutesensesincehehad

alreadydoneawaywiththeabsoluterestframeoftheether.However,ifthe

observersmotionwastrulyindistinguishablethen,accordingtothelightpostulate,

theyshouldbothperceivethelighttomoveatc.Thecontradictioninitiallyseemed

insoluble.

Einsteinsbrilliantresolutiontothisapparentcontradictioncompletedthe

primarybreakwithclassicalmechanicsthatbeganwiththerejectionoftheether.

Onemorning,Einsteinrealizedhehadtoworkoutarigorousoperationaldefinition

oftimetoreplacetheclassicalnotionofanabsoluteprogressionoftime.Inhis

Principia,Newtonassertedthatabsolute,true,andmathematicaltime,ofitselfand

fromitsownnature,flowsequablywithoutrelationtoanythingexternal(Isaacson,

125).Thisselfevidentstatementhad,for216years,functionedasastandinforany

rigorousformulationofthemeaningoftime.Einsteinreformulatedtimeasa


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statementaboutsimultaneity,whichturnedouttodependonanobservers

perspective.Returningtothetrainscenarioandaddingsomeinclementweatheris

sufficienttoprovideabriefexplanationofsimultaneity.Tosayanobserveronthe

groundwitnessestwoequidistantboltsoflightningstrikesimultaneouslyistosay

thatheseesthelightfromtheseeventsarriveatthesametime.However,these

sameeventsappeardifferentlytotheobserveronthetrain.Ifshepassesthe

stationaryobserverattheexactmomentofthelightningstrike,shewillhavemoved

alittledistanceinonedirectionbythetimetheburstsoflightreachher.Because

shewillthenbeclosertothelocationofonestrikethantotheother,thetwoflashes

oflightwillnotarrivesimultaneously.Thus,thereisanirreconcilabledifference

betweenthetimeinthesetwoinertialreferenceframes.Inotherwords,an

observeratrestperceivesaclockinarapidlymovinginertialreferenceframe

appearstomovemoreslowly.(Foramoredetaileddescriptionofthisthought

experimentandanexplanationofLorentzcontraction,seeIsaacson,pp.12235or

Greene,2353.)

ThisdiscrepancyallowedEinsteintoconfidentlyabolishthenotionofan

audibleticktockeverywhereintheworldthatcanbeconsideredastime.13Time

dilationimpliedthatthenotionofanabsolutespaceshouldalsobeabandoned,

producingtheconceptofLorenzcontraction(rapidlymovingobjectsappearshorter

toobserversatrest).Together,theseconceptsradicallydestroyedtheNewtonian

ideasofdiscreteandabsolutespaceandtime.WhileNewtonianmechanicshad

demonstratedanincrediblyaccuratepredictivepowerforgenerations,special

13WalterIsaacson,Einstein,128


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relativitydisproveditsmostfundamentalassumptionsaboutthefabricofthe

universe.Inplaceofabsolutethreedimensionalspaceanduniversaltime,Einstein

positedaninvariant,fourdimensionalspacetime.

SpacetimeisunthinkableinaNewtonianregime.Thatistosay:Noamount

ofexperimentationandthinkingdrivenbyNewtonianlogiccouldhavearrivedat

theconceptofspacetime,sinceabsolutespaceandtimeareessentialterms

undergirdingtheNewtonianequationsdescribingmotion.Beforespecialrelativity,

spaceremainedsimplythepassivecontainerofallevents.14Again,theproblem

wasnotoneofclassicalphysicsvisionbuttheabsoluteepistemologicallimitsofthe

classicalproblematic.Inordertothinktheideasofspecialrelativity,Einsteinhadto

domorethannewcalculations;hehadtoreformulatetheverytermsonwhichhis

disciplineunderstooditstheoreticalobject.Inalettertoaclosefriend,Einstein

displayedhisclearunderstandingofthisepistemologicalnecessity:Aftereffortsto

discovertheprivilegedstateofmovementofthishypotheticaletherthrough

experimentshadfailed,itseemedthattheproblemshouldberestated.Thatiswhat

thetheoryofrelativitydid.Itassumedthattherearenoprivilegedphysicalstatesof

movementandaskedwhatconsequencescouldbedrawnfromthis.15Inrestating

theproblemandposingthequestionwhatistime?Einsteinproduce[d]theasyet

unposedquestion,whichtheasyetunaskedforansweranswered.16This,

Althusserargues,istheexactprocessbywhichanewproblematicisconstituted.

14AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)in

IdeasandOpinions.(NewYork:Bonanza.)28015WalterIsaacson,Einstein,131.Emphasismine16LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital,Trans.BenBrewster(London:Verso,1997),23


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Fromtheperspectiveofthisnewproblematicitisfinallypossibleto

understandthetruetheoreticalstatusoftheether,whichnolongerappearsto

simplybeanincorrectanswer.RetrospectivelyreadingtheterrainoftheNewtonian

problematic,itisnoweasytoseehowphysicalspaceandtheetherareonly

differenttermsforthesamething.[But]ifnoparticularstateofmotioncanbe

ascribedtotheether,theredoesnotseemtobeanygroundforintroducingitasan

entityofaspecialsortalongsideofspace.17Thetheoreticalappearanceoftheether

isaneffectoftheNewtonianproblematicitself,whichrequiredsomewaytobridge

thegapinlogicbetweenMaxwellswaveequations(thesemathematicallyderived

equationsnowappearasprematureelementsanticipatingthemodernproblematic)

andthesolelymechanicaleffectivityofNewtoniandynamics.ItistheNewtonian

answertothequestionunaskedinclassicalproblematic:Whatisspace?

Inepistemologicalterms,theetherisamanifestationoftheideology

requiredbytheoldproblematic.AdaptingAlthussersformulationtothe

knowledgesoftheoreticalphysicsitispossibletounderstandhowideologymust

bethoughtofasslidingintoallthepartsoftheedifice,andconsideredasa

distinctivekindofcementthatassurestheadjustmentandcohesionof[elements]in

theirroles,theirfunctions,andtheir[physical]relations.18Thiscementfillsinthe

problematicsstructuralfissures,suturestogetherincorrectlyformulated

theoreticalobjects,andensurestheseelementsproperfunctioningaccordingtothe

logicofthegivenproblematic.Thisiswhy,inordertorejecttheexistenceofthe

17AlbertEinstein,TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics,28118LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyandideologicalstruggle,25


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ether,heneededtoeffectawholesalebreakwithastructurethatnotonlyharbored

thesespecificideologicalconceptsbutwasafundamentallyideologicalproblematic:

atotalsystemof[ideological]representations,asystemthatis,inprinciple,

orientatedanddistorted,asystemdominatedbya falseconceptionoftheworld

[and]ofthedomainofobjectsunderconsideration.19Thisiswhy,beforehecould

explaintimedilationorLorenzcontraction,Einsteinwascompelledtorefoundhis

disciplineinaproperlyscientificproblematic.

QuantumMechanics:FundamentalUncertainty

InMay1905,beforepublishingthefirstpaperofhismiracleyear,Einstein

correspondedwithaclosefriendaboutfourpapershewasworkingon.Thefirst,

hewrote,dealswithradiationandtheenergypropertiesoflightandisvery

revolutionary.20Hewasright.Thepaper,OnaHeuristicPointofViewConcerning

theProductionandTransformationofLight,builtonMaxPlancksrecentworkon

blackbodyradiationandcompletelyupendedtheclassicaltheoryofthenatureof

light.ThesuccessofMaxwellsequationshadthoroughlyconvincedphysiciststhat

light,likeallelectromagneticradiation,isawave.However,Einsteinarguedinhis

paperthatawavetheoryoflightdidnottellthewholestory;therewereaspectsof

lightsbehaviorthatindicateditcouldbedescribedinconcertascomposedof

discretepacketsofenergy.

19Ibid.24.20WalterIsaacson,Einstein,93


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In1900Planckhadbeenstudyingthespectraofblackbodyradiation,a

problemthathadthusfareludedinductiveexplanation.Hisattemptstoproducea

mathematicalmodelofthespectrawereunsuccessfuluntilhereluctantlyapplied

LudwigBoltzmannsstatisticalmethods,whichhehadpreviouslyresisted.

Strangely,hecouldonlygetthemodeltoworkifheincludedanunexpectedtiny

constant:h=6.62607x1034jouleseconds.Planckexplainedthisunexpected

parameter,todaycalledPlancksConstant,asanartifactofhiscalculationthat

modelshowmatterabsorbsandemitsenergy.Whileherealizedhwasthemost

importantaspectofhisresearch,herefusedtobelieveitwasanintrinsic

characteristicofenergy.Heimaginedthatmoleculesofmatteractedliketiny

harmonicoscillators,whichareonlyabletoabsorbenergyinspecific,discrete

quantities.Heassumedthemoleculesofmattercouldonlyabsorbelectromagnetic

energyinmultiplesofsomeminisculequantity.Inthisview,quantizationwas

merelyaneffectofmatterabsorbingandemittingenergy,notacharacteristicofthe

energyitself.

EinsteinstartedwithPlancksresultbutassumedhtohavemorephysical

significance;heimaginedthatlightreallyiscomposedofdiscretepointsofenergy.

Hecalledtheselocalizedparticlesquanta,thesmallestpossibleunitsofenergy.

Thetrulyrevolutionaryaspectofthetheory,however,wasthatEinsteindidnot

completelydiscardtheclassicalwavetheoryoflight,bestdescribedbyMaxwell.

Instead,hearguedthatlightcouldnotbefullydescribedbyeithertheoretical

formulation.TheideaofanemissiontheoryoflightwasnotnewevenNewton


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heldthisbeliefitwasEinsteinsabilitytothinkthisintrinsicdualitythatupsetthe

categoriesphysicistshadrelieduponforgenerations.

AfterEinsteinspaperwaspublished,ittookyearsforthescientific

communitytounderstandandaccepttheintrinsicwave/particledualityoflight.

Mostastonishingly,Planckhimselfresistedtheconceptforquitesometimesinceit

underminedhisstrictlyclassicalunderstandingofthephysicalworld.

Philosophically,assertingthisdualityrestoredtheproperrelationbetweenthe

knowledgeanditsproperobject.Physicistsinitialideologicalmisgivingsabout

quantummechanicswerefoundedonanincorrect,empiricistepistemologythat

confusedthetrueobjectofknowledge,preventingscientificprogress.Inan

empiricistproblematic,knowledgeiscompletelyinscribedinthestructureofthe

realobject,intheformofthedifferencebetweentheinessentialandtheessential.

Knowledgeisthereforealreadyreallypresentintherealobjectithastoknow.21In

thismodelofknowledgeproduction,controlledexperimentsaredesignedtostrip

awaythedrossoftheinessentialtoexposeandprobethekerneloftruth,i.e.,its

knowledge.Thus,accordingtothisempiricism,thecategoriesproducedin

knowledgearereallyexistingcategoriesintherealobjectitself.Intermsofthe

problemoflight,thiswasthemistakeofclassicalphysicists:toattributethe

absolutecategoriesofwaveandparticledynamics(categoriesthatareproductions

inknowledge)totherealobjectitself(light).Inotherwords,physicistsascribedthe

sameabsolutedifferencebetweenandradicalnonidentityofwavesandparticlesto

therealphenomenonoflightpropagationthatexistedintheirsystemofknowledge.

21LouisAlthusserFromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophy,38


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Onceagain,Einsteinwasabletorefoundhisdisciplineonanappropriately

scientificfooting,thistimebypracticallyassertingtheproperrelationbetween

knowledgeanditsobject.Maintainingscientificityrequiresawarenessofthe

distinctionbetweentherealobjectandtheobjectofknowledge,aproductofthe

thoughtwhichproducesitinitselfasathought-object,absolutelydistinctfromthe

realobject.22Thus,therealobjectlightpropagationisabstractedtoproducea

theoreticalobject,whichistheonestudiedbyphysicists.Einsteinrecognizedthis

epistemologicallynecessarydifferencebyrealizing(atleastinapracticalmanner)

howtheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledgetakesplaceentirelyin

knowledgeandiscarriedoutaccordingtoadifferentorder,inwhichthethought

categorieswhichreproducetherealcategoriesdonotoccupythesameplaceas

theydointheorderofrealhistoricalgenesis,butquitedifferentplacesassigned

thembytheirfunctionintheproductionprocessoftheobjectofknowledge.23The

empiricisterroroftheconservativephysicistscanthereforebereadasa

calcificationanddisavowalofthisprocess.Becausetheirdisciplinewasnot

sufficientlytheorized,becauseclassicalphysicsneverinterrogateditsproblematic,

thisprocessofknowledgeproductionwasforgottenandtheybegantoconfusethe

wave/particlecategoriesconstructedasaprocessualelementoftheproductionof

physicalknowledgewiththenaturalcharacteristicsoftherealobjectitself.They

forgotthattheircategorieswereproducedtorationalize,divide,andmakemeaning

outofNature.TheyforgotthatNaturedidntfollowthelawssetoutbymen.

22Ibid.41.23Ibid.


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AfterEinsteinwasabletoconvincethephysicsestablishmenttosoftenthe

logicoftheirmutuallyexclusivecategoriesworkonquantummechanicsexploded.

ThepaceofinnovationincreasedsorapidlythatEinsteinhimselfwentfrombeing

aniconoclasticinsurgenttoafigureofconservativeauthority.AsEinsteinaged,

youngerphysicistsBohr,Born,deBroglie,Schrdinger,Pauli,Dirac,and

Heisenbergtooktheleadinprobingtheprofoundlyweirdcharacteristicsofthe

universeatthissmallscale.Increasingly,Einsteinnotonlyfoundhimselffollowing

theworkoftheseothersbutalsorefusedanytheoreticaladvancethatundermined

hisfoundationalbeliefinthestrictdeterminismoftheuniverse.Inaparticularlyapt

quip,Einsteinremarked,Topunishmeformycontemptofauthority,Fatehas

mademeanauthoritymyself.24

JustasPlanckhadresistedEinsteinsradicalleapfromhisblackbodyresults,

EinsteinbecameapowerfulvoiceagainsttheworkoftheNielsBohrandhis

Copenhagenschool.ThetheoreticalworkofWernerHeisenbergdisturbedEinstein

mostprofoundly.In1927,Heisenbergformulatedhis(in)famousuncertainty

principle,whichstatedthatitisimpossibletosimultaneouslyknowboththeexact

positionandexactmomentumofaparticleatanygiventime.CombinedwithErwin

Schrdingersstatisticalapproachtodeterminingaparticleslocationwithwave

functions,quantummechanicsinsertedafundamentaluncertaintyintothephysical

knowledgeoftheuniverse.TheimplicationsofHeisenbergsUncertaintyPrinciple

(andtheothersthatfollowed)werebothnumerousandprofound.Experimentation

couldnolongerbetreatedasatransparentexperienceofthereallyexistingreality

24WalterIsaacson,Einstein,317


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oftheuniversesincetheveryactofmeasurementcausedacollapseofthewave

functionandchangedtheresult.Therewasnolongeraconceptofemptiness,since

evenavacuumwasproventohaveapredictablezeropointenergy.Itwasnolonger

possibletounequivocallylocateaparticlewithanaccuracythatdependedonlyon

thesensitivityofthemeasuringapparatus.Insteadofspeakingaboutindividual

particles,physicistswerereducedtomakingstatisticalandprobabilisticstatements

aboutapopulationofparticles.(Eachofthesequantummechanicalresultshasan

interestingschematicrelationshipwithAlthusserianthought,particularlyhislater

writingonthematerialismoftheencounter.However,thesefascinatingissuesare

beyondthescopeofthisessay.)Butthelossofstrictlydeterministiccausalitywas

thedevelopmentthatmostdisturbedEinstein,whousedalectureonthe200th

anniversaryofNewtonsbirthtopubliclydeclarehishope:Maythespiritof

Newtonsmethodgiveusthepowertorestoretheunionbetweenphysicalreality

andtheprofoundestcharacteristicofNewtonsteachingstrictcausality.25

BeyondtheintransienceofhisbeliefinaGodwhowouldntplaydicewith

theuniverse,Einsteinsreactionarystancevisvisfundamentalquantum

indeterminacyreflectsamisunderstandingoftheepistemologicalchangesto

physicsheinitiated.Bohrsummedupthechange:Itiswrongtothinkthatthetask

ofphysicsistofindouthownatureis.Physicsconcernswhatwecansayabout

nature.26Bohr,alongwithHeisenberg(Ibelievethatindeterminism,thatis,the

nonvalidityofrigorouscausality,isnecessary.27)andothers,understoodtheneed

25Ibid.333.26Ibid.27Ibid.332.


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forphilosophytokeeppacewithachangingscience.Andthischangeispartofthe

natureofscienceitself;Althusserargues,Theideawehaveofscienceisdecisivefor

scienceitself.Ifwehaveadogmaticconceptionwewilldonothingtodevelopit,we

willindefinitelyrepeatitsresults,andnotonlywillthesciencenotprogress,itwill

wither.28ItisasadfactthatEinsteinwasnotabletoplaceasmuchfaceinhisown

radicaltheoreticalpracticeashisfollowers.However,thismaybeacorrelative

resultofhowperfectlyhismindwasmatchedtotheconjunctureofhismiracleyear.

Indeed,itisalmostfittingforthelaterlifeofaman,whoseunrivaledintuitivegrasp

ofscientificepistemologyrevolutionizedhumanknowledgeoftheuniverse,toserve

asawarningagainstthedangereverysciencefaces:scienceisconstantly

submittedtotheonslaughtofexistingideologies,andparticularlytothatmost

disarmingbecauseapparentlynonideologicalideologywhereinthescientist

spontaneouslyreflectshis/herownpractice:empiricistorpositivistideology.29

Perhapsthisdangerisexactlywhyaparticularencounterisalwaysfinite:because

theplayersarealwaysspecifictothatparticularconjuncture.Whatittakestomake

oneencountertakeholdisspecificandnontransferrabletothenext.

_____________________

Thispaperrepresentsaninitialattempttobringtwohighlytheoretical

discursivefieldsintocontactandcloseswithmoredanglingquestionsthanfinished

answers.Hopefully,futureworkontheepistemologicalproblemsofclassical

physicsandongoingscientificinquiryofitsmodernoffspringwillproducemore

28LouisAlthusser,Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideology

andideologicalstruggle,14.29Ibid.12.


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satisfyingconnectionsbetweentheAlthusserianphilosophyandthecontentand

formoftheoreticalphysics.Fromallusiontophysicalprocessestoinvocationsof

Newton,Althusserswritingcallsoutforthiskindofproject.Quantummechanics

andrelativityspecificallygeneralrelativity,whichwaslargelyignoredbythis

papersinceEinsteindevelopeditmanyyearsafterhisprimarybreakwithclassical

mechanicspresentuniquechallengestoaMarxistphilosophyofscience,which

alsoworkstoproduceknowledgesofthemostfundamentalaspectsoftheworld.


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WorksCited

LouisAlthusser.Theory,theoreticalpracticeandtheoreticalformation:Ideologyand

ideologicalstruggleInPhilosophyandthespontaneousphilosophyofthe

scientistsandotheressays,Ed.GregoryElliott(London:Verso,1990)pp.142

FromCapitaltoMarxsPhilosophyinReadingCapital.Trans.BenBrewster.

(London:Verso,1997)pp.1170.

AlbertEinstein,OntheMethodofTheoreticalPhysics(1934)inIdeasandOpinions

(NewYork:Bonanza)pp.271276.

TheProblemofSpace,Ether,andtheFieldinPhysics(1934)inIdeasand

Opinions(NewYork:Bonanza)pp.276285.

WalterIsaacson,Einstein(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2007)

BrianGreene,TheElegantUniverse(NewYork:Vintage,2003)

werle - einstein's big break

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