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Western Australian Marine Science

Institution

Toward a Western Australian Marine Science

Blueprint 2050: Discussion Paper

July 2014


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CONTENTS

What is the Western Australian Marine Science Blueprint and why do we need it? .................... 5

This Discussion Paper .............................................................................................................................. 5

The WA Marine Science Blueprint 2050 .............................................................................................. 5

The Western Australian Marine Environment, Industry and Community and Knowledge Needs

..................................................................................................................................................................... 11

The Western Australian Marine Environment ................................................................................... 11

Economic Development and the Western Australian Marine Environment ............................. 17

Society, Community and Urban Development and the Western Australian Marine

Environment ........................................................................................................................................... 28

What is the Role for Science? ............................................................................................................ 32

Emerging Key Areas of Scientific Investigation .................................................................................. 33

Understanding Marine Ecosystems ................................................................................................... 33

Physical Oceanographic Processes ................................................................................................. 35

Capability Requirements ........................................................................................................................ 41

Enhanced Marine Datasets ................................................................................................................ 41

Scientists ................................................................................................................................................. 41

Infrastructure .......................................................................................................................................... 42

The Requirement for Prioritisation .......................................................................................................... 43

Moving Forward ........................................................................................................................................ 45


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Disclosure and Disclaimer

This report has been prepared by Australian Venture Consultants Pty Ltd (ACN: 101 195 699) (‘AVC’). AVC has

been commissioned to prepare this report by the Western Australian Marine Science Institution, and has received

a fee from the Western Australian Marine Science Institution for its preparation.

While the information contained in this report has been prepared by AVC with all reasonable care from sources

that AVC believes to be reliable, no responsibility or liability is accepted by AVC for any errors, omissions or

misstatements however caused. Any opinions or recommendations reflect the judgment and assumptions of AVC

as at the date of the document and may change without notice. AVC, its officers, agents and employees exclude

all liability whatsoever, in negligence or otherwise, for any loss or damage relating to this document to the full

extent permitted by law. Any opinion contained in this report is unsolicited general information only. AVC is not

aware that any recipient intends to rely on this report or of the manner in which a recipient intends to use it. In

preparing this information it is not possible to take into consideration the information or opinion needs of any

individual recipient. Recipients should conduct their own research into the issues discussed in this report before

acting on any recommendation.


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Project Governance

The Western Australian Marine Science Blueprint 2050 is a project that has been

commissioned by the Western Australian Marine Science Institution (WAMSI). WAMSI has

commissioned Australian Venture Consultants (AVC) to undertake the study that will result in

the Western Australian Marine Science Blueprint 2050. The project is being overseen by a

Steering Group comprised of the following experts:

E/Prof Alistar Robertson (Chair)

David Carter, CEO, Austral Fisheries

John Gunn, CEO, Australian Institute of Marine Science & Chair, Oceans Policy

Advisory Group

Colin Scott, Manager, Subsea and Pipelines, Chevron Australia

Luke Smith, Chief Environmental Scientist, Woodside

Michelle Reynolds, Executive Director, Office of Science, Department of Premier and

Cabinet

Stuart Smith, Director General, Department of Fisheries

Paul Vogel, Chair, Environmental Protection Authority

Piers Verstegen, Director, WA Conservation Council

Patrick Seares, Chief Executive Officer, Western Australian Marine Science Institution

This Discussion Paper has been prepared at the request of the Steering Group.


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What is the Western Australian Marine Science

Blueprint and why do we need it?

This Discussion Paper This document is not the Western Australian Marine Science Blueprint (‘Blueprint’).

Rather it is a discussion paper designed to explain why a Blueprint for marine science in

Western Australia is required, as well as some of the issues and knowledge gaps that are

starting to emerge from the analysis that is under way designed to generate the Blueprint.

The purpose of this discussion paper is to generate engagement from stakeholders in the

Western Australian marine environment in the process of developing the Blueprint. As such,

the potential knowledge gaps that are identified in this discussion paper are not exhaustive

and are not necessarily identified at this stage as being priorities for marine science research.

The key purpose of this discussion paper is to provide background information on the analysis

to date for the stakeholders in the Western Australian marine environment so that they can:

Determine if all of the major issues have been identified;

Advise the author of issues that have not been identified or which have been

identified but not given adequate emphasis in the discussion paper; and

Advise the author of avenues of inquiry that should be pursued to ensure that issues

are adequately addressed in the analysis that is subsequent to this discussion paper

that will inform the final Blueprint.

Throughout the document, the author has proposed key questions for the reader to consider.

These are outlined in text boxes at the end of each key section.

This discussion paper will be superseded by the Blueprint.

The WA Marine Science Blueprint 2050

What is it?

A scientific research plan that identifies and prioritises end-user knowledge needs…

The Western Australian Marine Science Blueprint (‘Blueprint’) is essentially an end-user driven

scientific research plan for marine science in Western Australia. While the Blueprint has been

commissioned by the Western Australian Marine Science Institution (WAMSI), it is intended to

be a resource for all stakeholders in the Western Australian marine environment.

The Blueprint will identify:

Key aspects of existing knowledge pertaining to the physical oceanography and

marine ecosystems that characterise, influence and shape the Western Australian

marine environment;

Key global, regional and local natural and anthropogenic phenomena that impact

on the Western Australian marine environment;


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The knowledge needs of organisations that conduct activities in and/or which impact

on the Western Australian marine environment

The knowledge needs of managers and regulators of the Western Australian marine

estate;

Gaps in in the knowledge requirements;

Prioritisation of new knowledge requirements; and ultimately

The scientific capability that is required to address these knowledge gaps.

Geographic area of focus…

While physical oceanography and marine ecosystems do not respect man-made lines of

demarcation, a body of water has to be defined as the primary focus of the Blueprint,

notwithstanding that the Blueprint will give consideration to marine ecosystems that are

connected to the body of water that is the focus of the Blueprint and the physical

oceanographic processes that provide that connectivity

The area of focus of the Blueprint is estuarine-catchment, coastal and open-ocean in

Western Australian and Commonwealth waters and the Australian Economic Exclusion Zone

between the Western Australian – Northern Territory border and the Western Australian – South

Australian border.

Throughout this document the term ‘Western Australian marine environment’ refers to that

area.

The time horizon…

While the Blueprint will focus primarily on the knowledge needs for the next 10 years, the 35

year horizon to 2050 is important. By 2050, many aspects of the Western Australian marine

environment will have changed in response to climate change and development. This will

affect the commercial fishing industry, urban interaction with the marine environment,

recreational users of the marine environment and design requirements for subsea and

topside petroleum production and pipeline infrastructure. Some current offshore

infrastructure will be approaching the end of its useful life. For example, unless further reserves

are discovered, much of offshore infrastructure associated directly with the North West Shelf

Project may be approaching decommissioning and the Prelude FLNG vessel will be at the

end of its design life. There will also likely be more shipping channels along the coast than is

currently the case that have been developed to support export activity.

As such, decisions will need to be made by industry, communities and regulators as to how to

manage these changes and events. These decisions will need to be informed by knowledge

that is based on high quality data and world-class scientific knowledge. The generation of

this data and knowledge will require investment and time.

Why is it needed?

Marine environment is the least

understood of all of the environments

with which mankind interacts…

Espousing the notion that mankind

understands more about the surface of the

‘We know what the surface of the

moon is better than we know what

the surface of the seafloor is.’

- M.Barber, 2001


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moon than it does the deep ocean serves as a useful anecdote to highlight the extent to

which the deep ocean is unknown. Our relatively poor understanding of the physics of the

ocean, and the marine ecosystems and livelihoods that it supports and sustains, also usually

only becomes topical in the event of human or ecological disasters such as the

disappearance of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 in March of this year, oil spill events such as the

Maconda explosion and associated oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, and the 2004 Indian

Ocean earthquake and tsunami.

However, the fact that we know so little about the marine environment compared to not

only the surface of the moon, but also a reasonable portion of our solar system, should not

be that surprising:

The difference in pressure between space and the Earth’s atmosphere is minimal,

whereas for every 10 metres of ocean depth, pressure increases by approximately 1

atmosphere. As such the deep ocean presents pressures that are prohibitive to most

activities;

While the ocean doesn’t exhibit the extreme variations in temperature that are

experienced in space, like space, much of the ocean is very cold;

Much of the ocean is very dark and/or vision is adversely affected by suspended

solids and biota;

While perhaps not as expensive as some space exploration, marine research is by its

nature an expensive exercise;

Mankind does not invest as much in marine exploration as it does space exploration.

For example, in 2013, it is estimated that the United States invested US$17.8 billion in

space exploration, but only US$5 billion in ocean exploration1;

As a result of these challenges, whereas approximately 500 individuals have been

sent into space, only three have visited the deepest part of the ocean, the Mariana

Trench2 and other than surface shipping, mankind really doesn’t interact much with a

large portion of the world’s oceans; and

Human and ecological disasters, such as those described above, are relatively rare

events, particularly within a specific geographic area.

Relatively more is known about coastal waters and their ecosystems, particularly in proximity

to settled areas, as the constraints on depth and distance lessen. As such, other than for the

betterment of mankind’s knowledge, in the scheme of man’s overall knowledge

requirements, an understanding of the deep ocean has always been a relatively low priority

that requires the application of expensive technology in a high operating cost environment.

However, the interconnectedness of oceanographic systems, combined with the event of

climate change and increased ocean related economic activity is driving a requirement for

a better understanding of ocean physics, chemistry and the marine ecosystems it supports.

This understanding is necessary to better inform investors in and operators of coastal and

ocean assets, marine related policy and regulators of the marine environment.

1 Casti, T. (2013), ‘Ocean vs. Space: Which is the true final frontier?’, Mashable

(http://mashable.com/2013/09/25/ocean-vs-space/) 2 Casti, T. (2013), ‘Ocean vs. Space: Which is the true final frontier?’, Mashable

(http://mashable.com/2013/09/25/ocean-vs-space/)


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There is a critical need for a better understanding of the marine environment in

Western Australia…

The stark nexus between the significant limitations of our understanding and a development

driven need for enhanced knowledge is substantially exacerbated in the case of the

Western Australian marine environment. For the following reasons much of the Western

Australian coastline is a relative wilderness:

Unlike much of the world’s coastlines, the coastline of Western Australia has only been

subjected to European industrial interaction and associated scientific explorations for

approximately the last 200 years;

Since European settlement, the population of Western Australia and associated

urban development has been all but been confined to the Southwest corner of the

State; and

With the exception of parts of the Pilbara coast, Southwest coast and river outlets that

source from catchment areas in the agricultural regions, industrial interaction with the

remainder of the Western Australian marine environment has, to date, been limited.

However, current and projected development of the State’s offshore petroleum industry,

increased interactions from mineral export operations and the development of other

industries that interact with the marine environment, such as aquaculture, tourism and the

Ord River Irrigation Area, creates a critical need for significantly enhanced scientific

knowledge pertaining to the physics of the marine environment, and the ecosystems that it

supports for the purposes of investment and operating decisions, as well as environmental

management decisions. This need is enhanced by the event of climate change.

Scientific research in the marine environment is multi-disciplinary and expensive and

undertaken by a wide range of organisations…

For the following reasons, developing and executing on a strategic plan for marine science

in Western Australia is a challenging exercise:

Conducting marine field research remains a costly exercise and costs in Western

Australia are exacerbated by the remoteness of the marine environment, and a

relative lack of marine science infrastructure throughout most of the State;

The disciplines of scientific expertise that are relevant to studying the marine

environment are many and diverse, including various fields of physics, chemistry,

biology, ecology and mathematics, as well as many social sciences;

Compared to many other fields, there is a relatively significant scientific capability

and capacity in many areas of marine science residing in the private sector,

particularly in companies associated with the oil and gas industry, at scales which at

least rival capabilities in public sector research organisations; and

There are a large number of diverse public sector organisations that undertake

marine scientific research in Western Australia, including a range of universities from

across Australia, CSIRO, Department of Parks and Wildlife, Australian Institute of

Marine Science, Department of Fisheries, Bureau of Meteorology, the marine science

consulting sector and the Royal Australian Navy.

Prioritising research within a limited research budget and coordinating and efficiently

deploying expertise from a wider range of diverse organisations is a challenge that must be

addressed if the knowledge gap pertaining to Western Australia’s marine environment is to

be closed.

Furthermore, the Western Australian marine environment is part of the wider Indian Ocean

region, which is becoming an increasingly important region from a trade and strategic


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perspective. Activities of other Nations in these waters will also impact on the Western

Australian marine environment.

Australia, India and South Africa are the only Indian Ocean boundary nations with world-

class scientific capacity and will play an increasingly important role in facilitating global

understanding of the Indian Ocean. A more focused and coordinated marine science effort

will enhance Western Australia’s role in international scientific research pertaining to the

Indian Ocean.

What will it be used for?

The Blueprint will be a public resource articulating end user knowledge needs and prioritising

critical knowledge gaps pertaining to the Western Australian marine environment. While it will

be central to helping WAMSI determine its focus, it is also intended that it will be used to

guide and support the research and knowledge acquisition investment decisions of a range

of organisations, including:

State, national and international researchers outside of WAMSI that have an interest

in marine science in Western Australia;

Current industries operating in the Western Australian marine environment including,

oil and gas, seaborne logistics and the fishing industry;

Government instrumentalities such as Search and Rescue, Customs and Border

Protection and the Australian Defence Force;

Commonwealth trade and foreign affairs agencies with an Indian Ocean and South

East Asian focus;

Future industries such as marine aquaculture and ocean energy;

State and Commonwealth government policy-makers and marine estate managers;

Traditional owners and managers of sea country;

Environmental Non-Government Organisations; and

Coastal shires and communities.

How will it be developed?

While the Blueprint has been commissioned and funded by WAMSI, it is being developed

independently by Australian Venture Consultants (AVC), a private strategic analytical

consultancy firm with expertise and a track-record in developing strategic, multi-stakeholder

scientific research plans. AVC has been engaged to ensure the analysis underpinning the

Blueprint is thorough and objective.

The process used by Australian Venture Consultants is highly consultative, ensuring that all

stakeholders have the opportunity to provide input to the research plan and comment on

drafts of the plan.

The Blueprint process will build on and complement existing knowledge and plans pertaining

to the Western Australian marine environment, including:

Ocean Policy Science Advisory Group (2009), A Marine Nation: National Framework

for Marine Research and Innovation

Ocean Policy Science Advisory Group (2013), Marine Nation 25: Marine Science to

Support Australia’s Blue Economy, Australian Government Canberra

Australian Bureau of Meteorology (2014), Marine Strategy 2014-19, Australian

Government, Canberra

Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (2010), Research Development

and Extension Plan 2010-15, Australian Government Canberra

Integrated Marine Observing System (2014), IMOS Strategy 2015-25


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It will also draw heavily on the ‘state-of-the-art’ as defined by the existing scientific literature

pertaining to the Western Australian marine environment.

The Blueprint will contribute regional context and resolution for the national Marine Science

Planning process soon to be initiated by the Ocean Policy Science Advisory Group. The

Blueprint will both inform this national process, and be nested within it once complete.


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The Western Australian Marine Environment,

Industry and Community and Knowledge

Needs

The Western Australian Marine Environment

Key Aspects of the Western Australian Marine Environment

The Western Australian coastline is approximately 13,000 kilometres long and accounts for

approximately 36 percent of the entire Australian coastline. The majority of the Western

Australian coastline has a north-south orientation and interfaces with the Indian Ocean

between latitudes of approximately 15º South and 25º South, with approximately 1,000

kilometres of coastline interfacing with the Southern Ocean and a relatively small portion of

the coastline interfacing with the Timor Sea.

The marine environment along this coastline is characterised by a very wide range of

habitats that exist in a diverse range of structures including:

Estuaries;

Seagrass meadows;

Islands and island systems, such as the Bonaparte Archipelago, Buccaneer

Archipelago, Kimberley Islands, Dampier Archipelago, Houtman-Abrolhos Islands, Dirk

Hartog and Recherche Archipelago;

Coral reef systems, such as Scott Reef, Rowley Shoals, Mermaid Reef, Montgomery

Reef, Ashmore Reef, Seringapatam Reef, Glomal Shoals and Ningaloo Reef;

Mangroves;

Complex benthic architecture;

Sounds, such as Camden Sound, Cockburn Sound and King George Sound;

Significant bays, such as Roebuck Bay, Shark Bay and Jurien Bay; and

Significant shelf and deep-ocean features, such as carbonate banks, continental

slopes, Exmouth Plateau, Wallaby Saddle, Naturalist Channel, Naturalist Plateau,

Albany Canyons and the Diamantina Fracture Zone.

These habitats exist in very diverse climatic and oceanographic conditions. As a result, they

host tremendous marine biodiversity3 and ecosystems. The waters off Western Australia are

home to a wide range of iconic and listed marine fauna species including a number of

marine mega-fauna (whale sharks, blue whales, humpback whales, southern right whales

and sperm whales), numerous species of dolphin, dugong, a variety of shark species,

Australian sea lions, New Zealand fur seal, marine turtles, sawfish and sea snakes as well as a

large number of seabird species including the soft plumed petrel, Australian lesser noddy and

the Indian yellow-nosed albatross and species of coral. It also hosts significant marine flora

biodiversity including the most diverse seagrasses in the world. In addition to the large

number of iconic and listed species, there is a significant amount of marine fauna and flora

endemism and short range endemic species in the Western Australian marine environment.

3 For the purposes of this paper, biodiversity is defined as the variety of life forms within a

defined geographical area, including the genetic and species diversity of plants, animals

and microorganisms, as well as the variety of habitats, ecological communities and

ecological processes within a defined geographical area.


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Furthermore, by virtue of the dominance of the Leeuwin Current along the length of the

Western Australian coast, these systems are highly interconnected.

As illustrated in Figure 14 below, these coastal and marine ecosystems, like all such systems,

provide a range of what are commonly referred to as ‘ecosystem services’ to the natural

environment and to the wellbeing of mankind.

FIGURE 1 – ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY MARINE SYSTEMS

The following subsections describe and discuss the knowledge needs, as identified by the

process thus far, for decision-makers involved in:

The conservation and protection of the ecosystems that provide the services listed in

Figure 1above;

The development and operation of economic activity that is designed to capture

value from some of the services listed in Figure 1above; and

Managing the societal and community interaction with the ecosystems that provide

the services listed in Figure 1above.

Conservation and Protection of the Western Australian Marine

Environment

As a result of its remoteness and the fact that major development has only occurred in the

past 50 or so years, much of the Western Australian marine environment is wilderness and

some aspects are globally unique. This is recognised by the Commonwealth Government’s

system of Marine Reserves, as well as Western Australian Marine Parks and Reserves, which

are designed for the primary purpose of conserving the biodiversity found within them, while

allowing for appropriate and sustainable use of natural resources and public enjoyment.

Commonwealth Government Marine Reserves

The Northwest Marine Region covers some 1.07 million square kilometres of marine estate

between the township of Kalbarri and the Northern Territory border. Approximately 30

percent of this area is the subject of Commonwealth Marine Reserves, including the

Carnarvon Canyon, Shark Bay, Gascoyne, Ningaloo, Montebello, Dampier, Eighty Mile

Beach, Argo-Rowley Terrace, Mermaid Reef, Roebuck, Kimberley, Ashmore Reef and Cartier

4 Leslie, H and McLeod, K (2007), ‘Confronting the challenges of implementing marine

ecosystem-based management’, Frontiers in Ecology, 5(10), 540-548

Food for humans

Food for animals

Fibre, timber, fuel

Medicines

Biodiversity

Biological regulation

Biochemical

Nutrient cycling

Climate regulation

Human disease control

Waste processing

Flood/storm protection

Erosion control

Water storage and retention

Cultural and amenity

Recreational

Aesthetics

Employment

Estuaries andMarshes

Mangrove Lagoon andSalt Ponds

Intertidal Kelp SeagrassRock andShell Reefs

CoralReefs

InnerShelf

Outer Shelves,Edges and Slopes

Seamountsand Mid-

Ocean Ridges

Deep Seaand Central

Gyres

Very Important ModeratelyImportant

Some Importance Important Not Important Not ranked


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Island Commonwealth Marine Reserves. Figure 25 below illustrates the location of marine

reserves in the Northwest Marine Region.

FIGURE 2 – NORTHWEST MARINE REGION COMMONWEALTH MARINE RESERVES

The South West Marine Region covers some 1.3 million square kilometres of marine estate

from Shark Bay to Kangaroo Island in South Australia. Approximately 40 percent of this marine

estate is the subject of Commonwealth Marine Reserves, including 400,830 square kilometres

of Reserves in the area of ocean that is relevant to the Blueprint. These Reserves include the

Abrolhos, Jurien, Two Rocks, Perth Canyon, Geographe, South-west Corner, Eastern

Recherche, Twilight and Bremer Commonwealth Marine Reserves. Commonwealth Marine

Reserves in the South West Marine Region are illustrated in Figure 36 below.

5 http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-reserves/north-west 6 http://www.environment.gov.au/topics/marine/marine-reserves/south-west


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FIGURE 3 - SOUTH WEST MARINE REGION COMMONWEALTH MARINE RESERVES

State Government Marine Parks

In addition to the Commonwealth Marine Reserve system is a network of State Government

marine parks, management areas, nature reserves and proposed marine parks and nature

reserves. There are thirteen State marine parks which are managed by the Department of

Parks and Wildlife and are designed to protect scenic and biologically important areas of

ocean and coastline. There are two State marine nature reserves, which are created for the

purposes of conservation and scientific research and which allow low-impact tourism, as well

as two marine management areas which facilitate integrated management in areas which

have a high conservation value as well as intensive multiple use.

Western Australian marine parks, management areas, nature reserves and proposed marine

parks and nature reserves are illustrated in Figure 47 below.

7 Source?


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FIGURE 4 – WESTERN AUSTRALIAN STATE MARINE PARKS, MANAGEMENT AREAS, NATURE RESERVES AND

PROPOSED MARINE PARKS AND RESERVES


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As global awareness of Western Australia’s marine environmental assets continues to

increase, the proponents and operators of projects that interact with this environment and

the agencies that regulate that activity will come under increasing pressure from the Western

Australian, Australian and global community to demonstrate that this activity is not

compromising those environmental assets. Increasingly, this will become critical for marine

industries of all types to maintain a social license to operate.

Key Knowledge Needs for Managers and Regulator of the Western

Australian Marine Environment

The responsibility for regulation and management of the Commonwealth Marine Reserves

resides with the Commonwealth Department of the Environment. The State marine reserves

are vested in the Marine Parks and Reserves Authority and managed on their behalf by the

Department of Parks and Wildlife. The Environmental Protection Authority is charged with

assessing the environmental impact of development projects on these parks, as well as the

wider ocean marine estate, recommending to the Government if a project proceeds,

together with conditions that should be placed on a project, including its environmental

management plan. The National Offshore Petroleum Safety and Environmental

Management Authority (NOPSEMA) is responsible for regulating safety and environmental

impact of the petroleum industry in Commonwealth Waters.

In addition, developers and operators of projects in the marine environment are required to

consider the environmental impact of their projects. They must make a science based case

for their project to be approved and manage the environmental impact throughout the

project cycle in accordance with their environmental management plan. They must do this

to meet the prescribed requirements of the relevant regulators and in order to maintain a

social license to operate, meet the environmental management expectations of the

community.

Management of these assets must be both effective in protecting and conserving

environmental values, as well as efficient from a productivity perspective. In the absence of

a deep scientific understanding of environmental assets, the precautionary principle may be

applied to protect these assets, which may carry an unnecessary productivity penalty.

The following are some espoused key knowledge needs that will allow regulators and project

proponents to optimally manage environmental assets:

Knowledge that ensures that the current system of reserves and parks is adequately

representative of the key biodiversity and ecosystems;

Substantially enhanced baseline descriptions of biodiversity, habitats and ecosystems

within marine reserves and parks that are representative of particular systems and

their natural variability, as well as long term trends;

A deeper understanding of the physical oceanography that connects ecosystems

(currents, eddy currents, solitons etc), the dynamics of the relationship between

different marine ecosystems and the impact of local, regional and global natural

(e.g. tropical cyclones, tsunamis etc) and anthropogenic events (e.g. oil spills etc) on

those ecosystems;

A deeper understanding of the impact of anthropogenic disruptions to this

interconnectivity (e.g. channels, pipelines etc);

Ability to distinguish between the impact of anthropogenic pressures and natural

events on ecosystems, particularly with reference to the rapidly increasing marine

noise environment in the northwest;


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Building on the knowledge developed from enhanced baseline descriptions and

deeper understanding of the interconnectedness of ecosystems, an understanding of

the resilience of specific marine ecosystems to natural and anthropogenic events;

A deeper understanding of new marine ecosystems that have developed around

manmade offshore infrastructure that leads to effective management of those

ecosystems in the event of project completion;

A deeper understanding of microbial and other small scale processes that underpin

all other biological activity, particularly important microbial processes and the

resilience of those processes to change;

An improved understanding of the various dimensions on which the public determine

and prescribe value to marine environments and the impacts of recreational

activities on the marine environment; and

A community that is more informed about marine science so that it is confident that

proponents and regulators are taking adequate measures to preserve important

marine ecosystems.

Economic Development and the Western Australian

Marine Environment With the exception of a relatively small amount of coastal and open-ocean commercial

shipping traffic and the fishing industry, there was limited industrial interaction with the

Western Australian marine environment until about 50 years ago. In more recent times,

particularly the last decade, there has been accelerated development of industries that

interact with the marine environment, including an offshore oil and gas industry, minerals

export industry and coastal urbanisation.

It is evident that there will be a continuing trend toward further economic development that

will interact with the Western Australian marine environment.

Offshore Oil and Gas Industry

The offshore oil and gas industry in Western Australia is located primarily in the Carnarvon

Basin off the Pilbara coast, with increasing exploration and development activity in the

Browse Basin off the Kimberley coast. Some exploration activity occurs in other areas along

Key Questions for the Reader

1. Which are the key ecosystems in the Western Australian marine environment for

which we have a reasonable understanding of habitats, biodiversity,

interconnectivity and natural variability?

2. Which are the key ecosystems in the Western Australian marine environment for

which our understanding of habitats, biodiversity, interconnectivity and natural

variability is minimal?

3. On what basis should we prioritise ecosystems for investment in an improved

understanding of habitats, biodiversity, interconnectivity and natural variability?


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the Western Australian coastline Figure 58 below illustrates existing petroleum titles as at June

2014.

FIGURE 5 – WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PETROLEUM TITLES (MAY 2014)

8 Department of Mines and Petroleum (2014)


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Carnarvon Basin

The oil and gas industry that produces hydrocarbon products from the offshore Carnarvon

basin is a key industry for Western Australia in terms of contribution to GSP, employment,

export revenues, sustainability of regional communities and domestic energy security. It is

also a significant industry for the Nation in terms of contribution to GNP, export revenues and

Commonwealth taxation revenues.

The following subsections summarise some of the key projects that comprise the Carnarvon

Basin offshore oil and gas industry.

North West Shelf Project

The North West Shelf Project is the single largest resources project in Australia and one of the

largest Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) projects in the world. It accounts for approximately 30

percent of Australia’s oil and gas production and has provided the majority of Western

Australia’s domestic gas supply for the past 30 years. Since 1989 the project has delivered

approximately 4,000 LNG cargoes to customers around the world.

Production from the Angel, Goodwyn A and North Rankin A platforms is piped to Woodside’s

Karratha Gas Plant where five LNG trains produce LNG for export and a domestic gas plant

delivers gas to the Dampier-Bunbury pipeline.

Gorgon

The Gorgon Project is operated by Chevron and is located on Barrow Island. Barrow Island is

a Class A Nature Reserve with an associated State marine reserve located approximately 60

kilometres off the coast. The Gorgon project sources gas from a combination of production

rigs and subsea production systems at the Jansz and Lo fields located in the Greater Gorgon

Area 130 kilometres of the coast. Once commissioned, gas will be piped to processing

facilities on Barrow Island via a subsea pipeline where it will be processed into LNG for export

via three LNG trains with a combined capacity of 15mtpa, as well as a domestic gas plant

which will supply the Dampier-Bunbury pipeline via a subsea pipeline from Barrow Island.

Macedon

The BHP Billiton Petroleum operated Macedon Gas project sources gas from the Macedon

Gas Field via four offshore production wells approximately 100 kilometres off the coast of

Onslow. Production gas is piped to a domestic gas plant located at Ashburton North near

Onslow.

Pluto LNG

The Pluto and Xena gas fields are located approximately 190 kilometres north of Karratha

where gas is sourced via a normally unmanned platform connected to five subsea wells. Gas

is piped from this facility via a 180 kilometre long trunkline to the onshore LNG plant near

Karratha, where a single LNG train produces 4.3mtpa.

Reindeer – Devil Creek

The Apache Energy operated Devil Creek domestic gas plant sources gas from its Reindeer

gas field, located approximately 45 kilometres off the coast.


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Wheatstone

The Chevron operated Wheatstone project will process gas produced from the Chevron

operated Lago gas fields as well as the Apache Energy operated Julimar and Brunello fields.

Gas sourced from these fields will be piped via a 225 kilometre trunkline to an onshore gas

processing facility at Ashburton North, 12 kilometres north of the town of Onslow, where it will

be processed into LNG for export via two LNG trains with a combined capacity of 8.9mtpa

and to domestic gas via a domestic gas plant linked to the Dampier-Bunbury pipeline.

Other Projects

In addition to the main projects discussed above there are a number of oil fields producing

and exporting via Floating Production Storage and Offloading (FPSO) facilities, as well as

further gas projects that are yet to achieve Final Investment Decision such as ExxonMobil’s

Scarborough project, which may see the first deployment of FLNG technology in the

Carnarvon Basin.

Offshore Browse Basin

Located off the coast of the Kimberley Region of Western Australia, the Browse Basin is

currently not in production. However, there are two projects currently under development,

one project proceeding to Final Investment Decision and considerable exploration activity in

the region. The Browse Basin will likely evolve into a major gas producing region for Western

Australia.

The following subsections describe the post Final Investment Decision projects in the Browse

Basin. These projects are being deployed in the context of very limited operating experience

in the region.

Ichthys LNG Project

The Ichthys gas and condensate field is located in the Browse Basin, approximately 200

kilometres off the Kimberley coast. Gas from the Ichthys field will be sourced from up to 50

subsea wells and undergo preliminary processing to remove water and raw fluids (including

most of the condensate) on what will be the world’s largest semi-submersible platform. The

removed condensate will be pumped to a FPSO facility to be anchored nearby. The gas will

be transported to a LNG processing facility in Darwin via a 890 kilometre long subsea

trunkline.

Prelude

The Prelude and Concerto gas fields are located approximately 475 kilometres north-east of

the Kimberley town of Broome. Gas will be produced from these fields via a series of subsea

wells delivering raw hydrocarbon fluids to the Prelude Floating LNG production vessel, which

is currently under construction. The Prelude FLNG vessel is 488 metres in length and 74 metres

wide with a fully-loaded weight of approximately 600,000 tonnes. It has the capacity to

process 3.6mtpa of LNG, as well as condensate and LPG. Production from the Prelude FLNG

vessel will be loaded onto LNG carriers directly at sea. The vessel will be permanently moored

at the location for 25 years and is rated to withstand a 1 in 10,000 year weather event. The

application of this technology in the Browse Basin is likely to be a world-first.

Browse

The Woodside operated Browse Project is comprised of the Torosa, Brecknock and Calliance

fields located approximately 425 kilometres north of Broome. The original plan for the


21

development of the Browse project was to source the gas via a series of subsea wells

connected to a platform, with the gas piped to an onshore LNG and domestic gas plant to

be located at James Price Point, approximately 60 kilometres north of Broome. For economic

reasons, Woodside abandoned this development option and are currently exploring the

application of FLNG technology to the project.

Key Knowledge Needs for the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry

The following are some espoused key knowledge needs of investors in and operators of

offshore oil and gas assets:

A deeper understanding of localised oceanographic processes such as solitons, eddy

currents, thermal structure and seafloor mobility, so that optimal positioning of

offshore infrastructure, design requirements and operational systems can be

determined;

A deeper understanding of how local physical oceanography will change with

climate change to ensure that assets are designed and managed to withstand and

operate safely and efficiently in a changing oceanographic environment;

Deeper understanding of the impact of changes in the water temperature profile on

gas production;

Enhanced prediction of solitons to better manage hydrate formation in subsea

production equipment and risers, FLNG side-by-side loading operations, and to

design improved anchoring systems for floating infrastructure;

Enhanced swell prediction that facilitates improved at-sea loading operations;

A deeper understanding of the physics of seabed mobility and the impact of extreme

events on seabed mobility, that leads to more effective design and management of

pipelines and other seafloor infrastructure and channels;

A deeper understanding of the ocean physics and biology of marine fouling that

leads to enhanced design and asset management options that provide for efficient

management of marine fouling on subsea infrastructure, particularly with respect to

reducing drag on risers;

Deeper understanding of the parameterisation of tropical cyclones and how to

predict and operate in the wind-fields around the vortex of tropical cyclones;

More efficient and effective baseline and disturbance monitoring for the approval

and compliance phases;

Improved predictive modelling of the transient and permanent impacts of

development activities such as dredging and port construction;

More efficient and effective benthic rehabilitation techniques associated with offsets

or decommissioning of infrastructure; and

More effective and efficient screening for exotic marine pests on vessels entering

Australian waters.

Seaborne Logistics

Seaborne logistics is critical to economic development, particularly in the case of a bulk

commodity export oriented economy like Western Australia. Physical disturbance of the

marine environment is caused by shipping through physical structures that support shipping

operations such as ports, dredging associated with navigation channels and the vessel

movements themselves. There is the compounding potential for the introduction of exotic

marine pests to Australian waters.

There are eight export ports along the coast of Western Australia. In 2012-13, these ports

collectively accounted for approximately 50 percent of the total throughput (mass tonnes)


22

at Australian ports. As illustrated in Figure 69 below, the vast majority of the throughput at

Western Australian ports is associated with iron ore and LNG exports from the Pilbara ports.

FIGURE 6 - THROUGHPUT AT WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PORTS (2011-12)

Western Australian ports also accounted for 22 percent of the approximate 30,000

commercial vessel calls to Australian ports in 2011-12, second only to the Queensland ports

which accounted for 30 percent of all commercial vessel calls to Australian ports. Again, it

was the bulk cargo, LNG carriers and other commercial vessels associated with servicing the

construction and operations of resources projects in the Pilbara region that accounted for

the vast majority of vessel calls at Western Australian ports. This is illustrated in Figure 710

below.

9 Ports Australia 10 Ports Australia

-

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Port

Hedland

Port

Authority

Dampier

Port

Authority

Fremantle

Port

Authority

Bunbury

Port

Authority

Esperance

Port

Authority

Geraldton

Port

Authority

Albany Port

Authority

Broome Port

Authority

Mas

s T

on

nes

(m

t)

Total Port Throughput - Western Australian Ports (2012-

13)

Imports Exports


23

FIGURE 7 – COMMERCIAL VESSEL CALLS AT WESTERN AUSTRALIAN PORTS – 2012-13

Key Knowledge Needs for the Seaborne Logistics Industry

The following are some espoused key knowledge needs for operators in the seaborne

logistics industry include:

Accurate swell prediction capability that leads to optimal navigation planning;

Monitoring and management of invasive species and application of efficient

biosecurity measures; and

Systems that allow efficient and safe port operations in the event of infra-gravity

waves within ports.

Commercial Fishing Industry

In 2011-12, the value of Western Australian wild capture fishery was approximately A$276

million, which was produced almost entirely from ocean and coastal resources. The Western

Rock Lobster sector accounted for approximately 65 percent of the value of the Western

Australian wild capture fishery11.

The commercial fishing industry employs approximately 10,000 Western Australians12. Most

fishing industry businesses are small family operated businesses and the industry is important

to the social fabric of many Western Australian coastal towns. Western Australia’s

commercial fishing industry is based primarily on relatively low volume, high value fisheries

such as western rock lobster, abalone, scallops and prawns that are exported primarily to

Asia and the United States. Finfish are also produced by the Western Australian fishing

industry and most of this catch is sold in the domestic market.

Table 1 below summarises Western Australian species for which there is a commercial fishery.

11 Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (2013), Australian Fisheries Statistics

Yearbook, Australian Government, Canberra 12 Western Australian Fishing Industry Council

-

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Dampier

Port

Authority

Port

Hedland

Port

Authority

Fremantle

Port

Authority

Bunbury

Port

Authority

Esperance

Port

Authority

Albany Port

Authority

Broome Port

Authority

Nu

mb

er o

f V

esse

ls

Commercial Vessel Calls - Western Australian ports

(2012-13)


24

Demersal finfish Pelagic

finfish

Near

shore/Estuarine

Finfish

Crustaceans Baitfish Molluscs and

other

Invertebrates

Coral trout

Emperor

Mulloway

Rock cod

Sea perch

Snapper

Tropical

snapper

Westralian

dhufish

Albacore

Bigeye tuna

Broadbill

swordfish

Bronze

whaler shark

Dusky shark

Gummy

shark

Mackerel

Patagonian

toothefish

School shark

Southern

Bluefin tuna

Tommy ruff

Tropical shark

Yellowfin

tuna

Whiskery

shark

Australian

salmon

Barramundi

Bream

Cobbler

Flounder

Flathead

King George

whiting

Tailor

Threadfin

salmon

Yellowfin

whiting

Banana prawn

Bay lobster

Endeavour

prawn

Ornate lobster

Mud crab

Swimmer crab

Tiger prawn

Western king

prawn

Pilchards

Sardines

Sea

mullet

Yellow-

eyed

mullet

Blacklip

abalone

Greenlop

abalone

Kimberley

calamari

Inshore squid

Octopus

Saucer scallop

TABLE 1- SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH WESTERN AUSTRALIAN FISHERIES

Key Knowledge Needs for the Commercial Fishing Industry


commercial fishing assets:

Likelihood and impact of marine heatwave events on the viability of existing fisheries

and the time required for fisheries to recover from these events;

Impact of ocean acidification on shellfish and other invertebrate fisheries;

Longer term impact of climate change on the productivity of existing fisheries;

Identification and potential of, as well as regulatory requirements for, new fisheries

such as large volume small pelagic species fisheries;

Mitigating the economic impact of increasing operating costs by better targeting of

catch and mitigation of environmental impact;

Reduction of by-catch and other ecosystem impacts in some fisheries;

Mechanisms that transfer scientific knowledge pertaining to the fishing industry to the

wider public to enhance public knowledge industry sustainability; and

Impact of the activities of other industries (such as seismic surveys associated with the

oil and gas industry) on specific fisheries.


25

Inland Agriculture and Other Anthropogenic Impacts on Catchment

Discharge

Whilst conducted onshore, agriculture impacts on the marine environment. Together with

significant volumes of sediment, fertilisers and other additives used to enhance agricultural

production often find their way into river catchments that ultimately drain into the ocean

environment. If physical ocean conditions cause a concentration of these nutrient rich

waters, they can have a significant impact on marine ecosystems.

Additionally, there has been growth of irrigated agriculture in the Kimberley Region (Ord

River Irrigation Area and potentially the La Grange Groundwater system). Understanding the

impact of diverted inland water systems on the drainage of those systems into the ocean

and the subsequent impact on marine ecosystems will be increasingly important

Key Knowledge Needs for the Management of Agriculture and Catchment Activities

The following are some espoused key knowledge needs that will facilitate improved

management of the interaction of inland activities that affect quality or flows of water

entering the marine environment with the marine environment:

Understanding the natural rates of sediment and nutrient runoff, and how land use

has changed these rates;

Deeper understanding of agricultural and urban nutrient loading in river catchments

and those which are likely to impact to marine environment;

Understanding the reversibility or otherwise of historic runoff impacts on estuaries and

remediation techniques;

Dispersion of agricultural nutrients carried by river systems into the marine

environment and the impact of those nutrients on marine ecosystems; and

Impact of inland waterway diversion, or climate driven reductions in flows, on the

marine environment.

Future Industries

Marine Aquaculture

Historically, marine aquaculture has evolved almost exclusively around the production of

Pinctada maxima pearls. This industry has had an historical average value of approximately

A$120 million per annum and is located on the Kimberley coast, but has been in significant

decline in recent years.

With respect to seafood aquaculture, native blue mussels have been grown in Cockburn

Sound for approximately the past two decades. Production from these operations has been

sold exclusively to the local restaurant market. Barramundi is grown in a sea cage operation

at Cone Bay, north of Broome. However, the total value of seafood produced by marine

aquaculture operations is estimated to be less than A$20 million, with the vast majority of that

value derived from the Cone Bay barramundi operation.

There have been numerous attempts to establish marine seafood aquaculture operations in

Western Australia over the past couple of decades, with a total estimated private sector

capital investment of between $60 and $100 million. To date, none of these endeavours

have resulted in a sustainable commercial venture, and all but one has failed. Cited reasons

for enterprise failure in the Western Australian aquaculture industry include:


26

Listed and unlisted public company finance structures that have resulted in significant

over-capitalisation and an inability to provide ongoing finance;

Over-promotion of many projects that has resulted in unmet investor expectations

and a loss of investor appetite for the sector;

Technical challenges including fish-health issues;

Uncertainty and costs associated with environmental and other regulatory approvals;

Inadequate infrastructure, particularly energy;

High cost structures associated with operations in regional Western Australia; and

Social conflicts over marine site usage.

There are a number of marine aquaculture projects that are in the early stages of

development in Western Australia that have at least prima facie potential to develop scale

and economic sustainability. These are either in production but not as yet profitable, in the

early stages of commercialisation or the subject of commercial trials, and are as follows:

Marine Produce Australia: Cone Bay Barramundi

This project involves a sea-cage operation located on an island off the Kimberley

coast to grow-out barramundi.

Geraldton Marine Finfish Project

This project has involved sea cage trials in Geraldton harbour to grow-out mulloway

and yellowtail kingfish

Ocean Grown Abalone Augusta Trials

This project is a trial to grow-out juvenile abalone produced at a onshore farm in

Bremer Bay at a site offshore Finders Bay in Augusta.

Occoculture

This project revolves around research projects exploring the technical and economic

viability of ranching and hatchery operations for various species of octopus, including

species native to Western Australian waters.

With increased pressure on the ability of the world’s wild-capture fisheries to sustain growing

global demand for seafood protein, Western Australia’s long coastline presents a potential

opportunity for the development of a sustainable marine aquaculture industry if economic

solutions can be developed.

Aquaculture can also play an important role in restocking for the purposes of conserving

listed species or ensuring sustainable commercial fisheries.

Knowledge Needs for Marine Aquaculture


commercial marine aquaculture assets:

Identification of opportunities to improve the economic viability of marine

aquaculture in Western Australia based on current production technology;

Identification of emerging technologies that could be deployed in Western Australia

to facilitate an economically and environmentally sustainable aquaculture industry in

Western Australia;

Understanding of community attitudes toward near shore aquaculture in prospective

areas;


27

Mapping that builds on existing knowledge of technically and economically viable

locations for aquaculture along the Western Australian coastline based on current

and future technologies; and

Opportunities and challenges (including the management of biosecurity) for using

aquaculture to restock listed species or species that are under pressure from

commercial or recreational fishing.

Marine Bio-prospecting

Marine Bio-prospecting refers to the systematic search for, and development of, new sources

of chemical compounds, genes, micro-organisms and other valuable products from the

natural marine environment. The absence of legislation that facilitates intellectual property

rights that might arise from bio-prospecting is often cited as the reason that there is limited

marine bio-prosecting activity in Western Australia. However, it is also likely that Western

Australia is a less attractive location for marine bio-prospecting than other regions of the

world that demonstrate higher marine biodiversity densities such as many parts of Asia.

Knowledge Needs for Marine Bioprospecting


commercial marine aquaculture assets:

Are there specific high value compounds for which the Western Australian marine

environment may be more prospective than other regions?

Are there technologies that exist or can be developed that can more efficiently

identify those compounds and/or indicators of the presence of those compounds?

Ocean Energy

Ocean energy includes tidal, wave and ocean thermal energy. The total tidal kinetic energy

on average at any one time on the continental shelf adjacent to Western Australia accounts

for approximately 60 percent of the total off Australian waters13 The North West Shelf has

significant kinetic energy density, potentially rendering areas within the North West Shelf

suitable for deployment of tidal energy generation systems. Whereas, the south west coast

has potential for the application of wave energy systems.

The temperature difference that exists through the water column as a result of the sun’s solar

radiation heating surface waters creates thermal energy that can be converted into thermal

energy through ocean thermal energy converters. Sharp differences in water temperature

which occur in deeper parts of the northwest ocean environment may be suitable for

harnessing ocean thermal energy.

Ocean sourced renewable energy has not historically been a major focus of investment in

Western Australia, primarily as the result of the relative capital and operating cost benefits

associated many terrestrial renewable resources such as wind, solar and tidal and the

immediate suitability for many parts of Western Australia for particular wind and solar

generation.

13 Geoscience Australia (2010), Australian Energy Resource Assessment, Geoscience

Australia, Canberra


28

Knowledge Needs for Ocean Energy


ocean energy assets:

Identification of possible sites for ocean energy structure as determined by suitability

of ocean physics (including a far more accurate map of the ocean thermal structure

that can be used as the basis for identifying opportunities for ocean thermal energy

infrastructure), environmental impact of that infrastructure and proximity and access

to sources of energy demand; and

Deeper understanding of the economics and competitiveness of ocean energy in

Western Australia.

Other Future Industries

In the more distant future industries such as deep sea mining may be a relevant point of

focus. Deep sea mining involves retrieving minerals from ocean mining sites that are usually

located around large areas of polymetallic nodules, manganese crusts or active and extinct

hydrothermal vents, which create sulphide deposits that can contain a range of metals.

Given the cost of deep sea mining compared to terrestrial mining, particularly in a minerals

rich province such as Western Australia, the economic viability of deep sea mining is likely to

be some time away.

Society, Community and Urban Development and the

Western Australian Marine Environment As illustrated in Figure 814 below, the greatest population density of both Australians and

Western Australians is in the capital cities and other coastal communities.

14 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013), Year Book Australia, 2012, 1301.0


1. Industry, particularly the oil and gas industry makes a significant investment in

both physical marine biological science to support strategic, investment and

operational decisions, as well as to attain approvals. While the outputs of this

science is typical treated as confidential, there is a very real risk that public

sector investment in marine science will unnecessarily replicate industry

investment, resulting in an unnecessary productivity penalty. Are there avenues

that we can explore to mitigate this risk and ensure that limited resources are

applied to marine science in the most productive way?

2. Are there opportunities for the private sector and public research sector to

collaborate more closely to ensure resources are optimally deployed across

physical ocean science and marine biological science?


29

FIGURE 8 - POPULATION DENSITY - JUNE 2010

As at 30 June 2013, the estimated population of Western Australia was 2.52 million people, or

11 percent of the National population. During the period 2011-12 to 2012-13, Western

Australia’s population grew by 3.3 percent or 81,300 people, representing the fastest

population growth rate of any State or Territory. The population density in Western Australia is

currently one person per square kilometre, which is the second lowest in Australia after the

Northern Territory15.

Approximately, 1.9 million (or 75 percent of Western Australia’s population) live in the capital

city of Perth. As illustrated in Figure 916 below, the population of Perth has grown by

approximately 30 percent over the past decade.

15 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013), Regional Population Growth, 3218.0 16 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2014), Regional Population Growth, Australia, 3218.0


30

FIGURE 9 –HISTORICAL TREND IN THE RESIDENTIAL POPULATION OF PERTH

An additional approximately 230,000 people reside in the other non-metropolitan population

centres along the Western Australian coast. As illustrated in Figure 1017 below, the population

of other major Western Australian coastal communities has also increased dramatically over

the past decade.

FIGURE 10 - RESIDENTIAL POPULATION OF NON-METROPOLITAN WESTERN AUSTRALIAN COASTAL

POPULATION CENTRES

Since 1990, there has been an average number of new dwelling approvals in Western

Australia of approximately 21,650 per annum, the vast majority of which has occurred in the

17 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2014), Regional Population Growth, Australia, 3218.0

-

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

1,400,000

1,600,000

1,800,000

2,000,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Res

iden

tial

Po

pu

lati

on

Historical Population - Perth

-

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012r 2013p

Historical Trend in the Residential Population of Non-

metropolitan Major Coastal Population Centres

Bunbury Geraldton Busselton Albany Karratha Port Hedland Broome


31

expanding coastal communities. The historical trend in building approvals in Western

Australia is summarised in Figure 1118 below.

FIGURE 11 – HISTORICAL TREND IN THE NUMBER OF NEW DWELLING APPROVALS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA

With the vast majority of the Western Australian population residing in coastal communities,

the Western Australian marine environment is fundamental to Western Australian culture and

recreational activity. For example:

An estimated one-third of the Western Australian population engage in recreational

fishing;

Western Australia has the highest boat ownership per capita of any state or territory in

Australia; and

Customary fishing practices are of central importance to many Aboriginal cultures

along the coast of Western Australia.

Because there is very limited data on which the impact of particularly recreational fishing

and boating can be assessed, the degree to which these activities should be regulated in

uncertain.

Knowledge Needs for Communities and Urban Development

The following are some espoused key knowledge needs of investors in and regulators of

coastal communities, infrastructure and urban development:

A clear understanding and quantification of the relationship between important

coastal communities and marine economic activity;

18 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2014), Building Approvals, Australia May 2014, 8731.0

-

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

(u

p t

o 3

1 M

ay)

Nu

mb

er o

f N

ew D

wel

lin

gs

Ap

pro

ved

Historical Trend in the Number of New Dwellings

Approved in Western Australia


32

Identification and analysis of the impact of marine based recreational activities

(boating, recreational fishing etc) on the marine ecosystems and economic activity;

Understanding of the importance of marine recreational activities on other industries

such as tourism and the viability of coastal communities;

Deeper understanding of the impact of climate change as well as local, regional and

global natural and anthropogenic events on coastal inundation and design

requirements for coastal infrastructure and urban development;

Deeper understanding of physical erosion or sedimentation impacts on beach form

and coastal infrastructure, and mechanisms to avoid/mitigate these impacts;

Deeper understanding of the physics and ecosystems associated with the estuarine

environments that are often the foci of coastal communities; and

Improved quantification of the recreational fish take for the purposes of effective

management and conservation of local fish stocks.

What is the Role for Science? The subsections above list a wide range of knowledge needs that have been espoused by

various stakeholders in the Western Australian marine environment to date. Advancing this

knowledge is critical to ensuring that:

The marine ecosystems that provide so many important services to the wider

environment as well as Western Australian society and industry remain functional;

Existing marine industry progresses and new marine industries are developed in a

sustainable way;

Prospective industries are able to source capital, develop and operate with a far

greater degree of certainty;

Regulation and management is able to be targeted, rather than precautionary; and

That Western Australians continue to enjoy the marine environment that is so

important to the ‘WA way of life’.

The solution to these knowledge needs resides in the advancement of science in areas of

scientific investigation that pertain specifically to key aspects to the Western Australian

marine environment that either directly inform these knowledge needs, or which create a

knowledge capability that can service these knowledge needs.

The key areas of scientific investigation that are emerging as key to servicing these

knowledge needs are discussed in the next section of this discussion paper.


33

Emerging Key Areas of Scientific Investigation This section of the discussion paper highlights key fields of investigation in which scientific

knowledge must be substantially improved in order to address the knowledge gaps identified

in the previous section.

The following subsections discuss the scientific knowledge gaps that have emerged from the

Blueprint analysis to date and are not necessarily the priorities. Further interviews and

workshops are still to be conducted, within will further inform the identification and

development of the required areas of scientific investigation.

Because he ocean is a biophysical system, it is not surprising that the scientific fields of

investigation that have emerged to date can be broadly categorised as understanding

marine ecosystems, the physical ocean environment and the relationship between the two.

Understanding Marine Ecosystems As discussed in a previous section of this discussion paper, the Western Australian marine

environment hosts a wide range of marine habitats, ecosystems and biodiversity, which in

turn, deliver a wide range of ecosystem services such as those summarised in Figure 1. The

protection and conservation of these ecosystems is key to ensuring that the environment and

mankind continue to benefit from these ecosystem services.

As discussed also in an earlier section of this paper, the Commonwealth and State

Governments have created reserves over significant portions of the marine environment

along the Western Australian coast. These reserves are representative of our diverse natural

heritage. Within and across these reserves, identifying the key components and extent of

protection required must be based on sound scientific monitoring and knowledge.

Developing conservation and protection policy and regulation in the absence of sound

scientific knowledge pertaining to those ecosystems has two possible undesirable results:

Ecosystems that are representative of important environmental values are

inadequately protected and conserved, resulting in loss of important habitats,

biodiversity and ecosystem services; and/or

The precautionary principle of protection and conservation is applied to ecosystems

that are believed to be important, resulting in unnecessary conservation and

protection regulation that carries with it a significant economic and social

productivity penalty.

The following subsections discuss the key areas of marine ecosystem science where there are

currently knowledge gaps.

Ecosystem Mapping

The key input to understanding marine ecosystems is a baseline description of the habitats,

nutrient cycling and biodiversity that comprise the ecosystem and the natural variability in

habitats and biodiversity that occurs over time as the result of macro-weather patterns,

extreme natural events such as tropical cyclones and natural variation in the physical ocean

environment. This is required to understand how unique and/or important a particular marine

ecosystem is with respect to providing ecosystem services as well as to determine the positive

or negative impact that anthropogenic or natural events have on the health and

sustainability of those ecosystems.


34

Developing baseline descriptions of ecosystems requires the mapping of habitats, nutrient

cycling and biodiversity within an ecosystem. This mapping is based on longitudinal studies of

genetics, taxonomy, benthic architecture, water composition and the like within the

ecosystem at resolution that is determined to be appropriate and for a duration that is

considered to adequately detect nature variability. In terms of baseline biodiversity studies, it

is critical that biodiversity is detected at least to the microbial level as this is the fundamental

basis for understanding the food chains associated with a specific ecosystem.

For some marine ecosystems in the Western Australian marine environment, such as Scott

Reef and Ningaloo Reef, significant mapping studies have been undertaken. However, for

many ecosystems in the Western Australian marine environment, knowledge pertaining to

habitats, nutrient cycling and biodiversity is minimal. Without this baseline knowledge, the

importance of these ecosystems and the impact of natural and anthropogenic events on

ecosystems cannot be accurately determined. Nor can the best way to manage these

assets be determined.

Cause and Effect

Related to enhanced baseline knowledge of marine ecosystems is understanding variability

in habitats, nutrient cycling and biodiversity in those ecosystems and the causes of that

variability. Variability in marine ecosystems can be caused by a very wide range of natural

events and anthropogenic actions that occur as a single event or action or as multiple

events or actions over time.

As a result of the interconnected nature of the physical ocean environment (see next sub-

section) marine ecosystems can be impacted by events and actions that occur locally,

regionally or globally. This interconnectivity also means that multiple events or actions from

different sources, occurring in different locations and different times can have a cumulative

impact on an ecosystem.

Understanding cause-and-effect of different natural phenomena and anthropogenic events

is key to determining natural variability in ecosystems and that which is caused by

anthropogenic actions, as well as the resilience of ecosystems to extreme natural events and

anthropogenic actions. This particularly problematic in the Western Australian marine

environment because ecosystems are frequently affected by extreme natural phenomena

such as tropical cyclones (see next section).

Interconnectivity

Understanding the interconnectivity of ecosystems along the Western Australian coastline

and between the coastal, shelf and deep sea environments is not only important for

determining cause and effect, but also the ecological relationship between ecosystems and

natural variability in that relationship. Understanding the range of species throughout their

lifecycle and the interdependency of different marine ecosystems, informs the importance of

specific marine ecosystems, as well as the nature and degree of protection and

conservation that may be required.

Understanding interconnectivity requires an understanding of the immediate physical ocean

environment and the regional and global influences on the local physical ocean

environment.


35

Physical Oceanographic Processes Physical oceanography is the study of the evolving patterns of ocean circulation and fluid

motion, along with the distribution of the ocean’s properties such as temperature, salinity

and the concentration of dissolved chemical elements and gases. A deep understanding of

physical oceanography that affects the Western Australian marine environment is critical in

underpinning our understanding of the evolution and resilience of marine ecosystems, design

requirements for offshore and coastal infrastructure, strategic investment decisions in fisheries

and fisheries management and a range of offshore operational decisions. It also informs the

location and nature of coastal urban development and other infrastructure.

Understanding the physical oceanography of the Western Australian marine environment

helps us to predict the impact that natural and anthropogenic initiated events that occur

locally, within the region and around the world, will have on the Western Australian marine

environment and natural and industrial systems that interact with the environment.

This is achieved through the development of quantitative models that simulate the impact of

natural and anthropogenic events on aspects of the marine environment. Models are

required for short term forecasting (determining with confidence the likelihood of extreme

events next season) and longer term (determining with confidence the likelihood of extreme

events over the next 20 years for determining more strategic investment and management

decisions).

The development of oceanographic models is particularly challenging as the stochastic

methods that are typically used to develop forecasting models do not prove very effective in

oceanographic modelling. Regardless, for oceanographic models to be effective, they must

be based on high quality data, for which there is limited accessibility.

This forecasting capability is critically important for engineering design, safe and efficient

operations and maintenance of offshore assets, natural and anthropogenic hazard

management and the assessment of environmental impact of natural and anthropogenic

events.

The following subsections describe the main physical features of the Western Australian

marine environment where there are significant knowledge gaps.

Dominance of the Leeuwin Current

There are four main currents that affect the Western Australian marine environment:

Indonesian Flowthrough

Holloway Current

Eastern Gyral Current

Leeuwin Current

Originating from both the Indonesian Flow-through and the tropical Indian Ocean, the

Leeuwin Current is the dominant current feature in the Western Australian ocean

environment. The Leeuwin Current and variability in the Leeuwin Current has profound

impact on the marine ecosystems and fisheries off the west and south coasts of Australia19

19 Feng, M., Weller, E. and Hill, K. (2009), ‘The Leeuwin Current’, A Marine Climate Change

Impacts and Adaption Report Card for Australia


36

and is the main vector for interconnectivity between the northwest marine environment and

southern coastal waters of Western Australia.

The fact that the Leeuwin current is connected to the world’s oceans by the Indonesian

Flowthrough, Holloway and Eastern Gyral currents means that anthropogenic and natural

events that occur elsewhere in the world can have a dramatic impact on the physical

ocean environment off the coast of Western Australia. Changes in the Leeuwin Current can

affect a wide range of physical ocean conditions along the entire length of the Western

Australian coastline including water temperature (see subsequent section) and salinity, which

have a profound effect on industries such as commercial fishing. The Leeuwin Current and

changes in the Leeuwin Current will also determine, to a large extent, the impact of climate

change along the Western Australian coastline.

A much deeper understanding of the Leeuwin Current is critical to understanding the local,

regional and international interconnectedness of the waters off the Western Australian coast

so that the broader impact of natural events and anthropogenic pressures can be

accurately predicted and optimally managed.

Eddy Currents

Eddy currents are currents that move contrary to the direction of the main current in a

circular motion. Because the Leeuwin Current is an inherently unstable current, meso-scale

eddy currents, which are eddy currents of between 10 and 500 kilometres in diameter, are a

ubiquitous feature of the Leeuwin Current. With the highest eddy current energy of all

eastern boundary current systems in the world, the eddy currents associated with the

Leeuwin Current impact tremendously on the circulation of waters of the Western Australian

coastline and have significant impact on the immediate physical ocean conditions and

biological activity.

Understanding where these eddy currents predominately occur can lead to improved

understanding of ocean circulation and better informed decisions as to where to establish

ocean infrastructure.

Internal Waves (Solitons)

Solitons, or internal waves, are waves that travel within the interior of the ocean. They occur

as the result of stratified density structure of two fluids, with a very sharp density change

occurring along the interface and with the properties that the smaller the density contrast,

the lower the wave frequency and slower the propagation speed.

Solitons represent a major hazard to the operation of offshore oil and gas facilities. Because

solitons of depression push the warm water deeper and solitons of uplift push the cold water

up, they can impact on the management of hydrate formation in subsea production

equipment and risers. They can also impact on anchoring systems for topsides, as they can

move and twist anchoring systems. However, both of these issues can be addressed by

engineering for the worst possible case. Arguably the biggest impact of Solitons is on

operational decision pertaining to side-by-side loading between vessels and floating

structures, particularly in the case of FLNG where it is not possible to decouple a vessel until

the loading/unloading process is complete. Solitons also transfer suspended biota and are a

medium for ecosystem interconnectivity.


37

Ocean Thermal Structure

Waters off Western Australia are approximately 4 degrees Celsius warmer than waters at

corresponding latitudes off the west coasts of the African and South American continents.

The Leeuwin Current has a significant impact on water temperatures along the Western

Australian coast.

While measurements of water temperature along the Western Australian coast are relatively

sparse, they suggest that between Shark Bay and Cape Leeuwin the overall along–shore

temperature gradient is approximately 0.5 degrees Celsius per 100 kilometres and there is a

seasonally-reversing temperature gradient across the continental shelf. During the summer

months, shallow near-coastal waters increase in temperature because of heat input from the

sun and atmosphere and as such, the temperature decreases slightly with distance offshore.

In winter, on the other hand, coastal waters cool rapidly because of heat loss to the

atmosphere, and at the same time the Leeuwin Current is maintaining warm conditions

offshore, so there can be a large increase in surface temperature between the coast and

the edge of the continental shelf.20 However, studies in areas where there has been more

comprehensive measurement of ocean temperature suggest that there is significantly

greater variability.

A deeper understanding of the ocean’s thermal structure informs many other aspects of

ocean physics and marine ecosystems including the behaviour of solitons, currents, tides,

waves and water quality as well as biota. It also impacts on the design of subsea petroleum

production systems and in the longer term may assist in the identification of siting options for

ocean thermal energy systems.

Marine Heatwaves

Sudden changes in temperature in waters off the Western Australian coast are not a unique

phenomenon. However, in February and March of 2011, water temperatures off the south-

western coast of Western Australia rose to unprecedented levels. Commonly referred to as a

marine heat-wave, this event saw surface temperatures rise to more than 3 degrees Celsius

above the long-term monthly average over an extended area in February 2011 and in some

localised areas in coastal waters exceeded the long-term monthly average by 5 degrees for

periods of a day or two in late February/early March21.

This event had a number of biological impacts including fish and invertebrate mortalities,

extensions and contractions of species distributions, variation in recruitment and growth-

rates, impacts on trophic relationships and community structure and variations in fisheries

catch rates. It has also had the effect of bleaching several coral reefs along the Western

Australian coast. Understanding and predicting marine heatwaves is critically important to

managing marine conservation estates and determining the viability of specific fisheries

along the coast.

20 CSIRO, Coastal Ocean Temperatures off WA 21 Pearce, A., Lenanton, R., Jackson, G., Moore, J., Feng, M. and Gaughan, D. (2011), The

Marine Heatwave off Western Australia During the Summer of 2010-11, Department of

Fisheries Research Report No. 222, 2011


38

Mobile Seabed

Much of the seabed off the Western Australian coastline is understood to be mobile.

Propagating in the northwest, seafloor sediments and transported southward by mobile

subsea dune systems. These subsea dunes are caused by wave induced pressure on the

seabed and are an important mechanism of connectivity between ecosystems as they

transport sediments and biota southward along the Western Australian coastline.

Understanding the impact of waves, solitons and bottom boundary steady currents on the

mobility of the seafloor is key in understanding design requirements for pipelines, dredging

channels and other infrastructure, as well as the impact of this infrastructure and channels on

the connectivity of ecosystems.

Swell Prediction

Swells can arrive at the Western Australian ocean environment from a wide range of sources,

including the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean. They can also propagate from

hurricanes occurring as far away as the North Atlantic. Accurate swell prediction is key to

many installation and operational decisions in an offshore environment, including optimal

navigation of vessel traffic.

Infra-gravity Waves

Infragravity waves are generated by nonlinear interactions among the primary waves, have

depth independent horizontal velocity and pressure profiles and propagate as non-

dispersive shallow water waves22. They commonly occur within ports causing problems with

berthing and unloading-loading procedures.

Infragravity waves are a common feature of the Esperance, Bunbury and Geraldton ports.

Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclones in the northwest are frequent and often severe. They tend to form off the

coast of the Kimberley Region and when they cross the coast they tend to cross in the

Kimberley or more commonly, the Pilbara coastline. Figure 1223 below illustrates the pathway

and intensity of tropical cyclones that crossed the Australian coast between 1970 and 2009.

22 Uchyama, Y. and McWilliams, C. (2008), ‘Infragravity waves in the deep ocean:

generation, propogation and seismic hum excitation’, Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol.

113, C07029, p1-25 23 Haig et al (2013) IN: Pattiaratchi, C. (2013), An Overview of the Oceanography of Northern

Australia


39

FIGURE 12 – TROPICAL CYCLONE PATHWAYS 1970 TO 2009

Tropical cyclones are a major factor in many aspects of operational planning and decision

making in the northwest. They are also a threat to local communities, and are often

associated with storm surges that place coastal infrastructure at risk. A deeper understanding

of the parameterisation of tropical cyclones, including tropical cyclone wind fields, will help

understand how to operate ocean assets in the wind fields around the vortex and the

impact that these wind fields have on ocean circulation in the region.

While most offshore infrastructure is designed to endure severe tropical cyclones, operational

decisions such as navigation, putting moored vessels to sea, deferring a loading operation,

de-manning a facility or uncoupling and sailing away an FPSO require prediction as to the

pathway and intensity of tropical cyclones, which are inherently unpredictable. The need for

accurate predictability of cyclone intensity and pathways is significant in the case of FLNG

offloading operations because it is not possible to decouple during an offloading process.

Importantly, the frequency and severity of tropical cyclone events combined with the

interconnectivity facilitated by the Leeuwin current, means that tropical cyclones often have

a dramatic impact on the physical oceanography and ecosystems along the entire Western

Australian coastline.


40


1. Does this section identify at a high level the key areas of scientific investigation that

will be required to address the main knowledge needs identified in the previous

section of the discussion paper?


41

Capability Requirements

Parallel to the Blueprint process, WAMSI is currently undertaking a review of the collective

marine science capability of the WAMSI partners. The purpose of this review is to understand

the specific marine scientific capabilities and capacity that can realistically be deployed to

advance the science that is needed to service the knowledge needs of the stakeholders in

the Western Australian marine environment.

Enhanced Marine Datasets Advancing marine science in Western Australia will require access to larger, more

representative high quality physical and biological datasets pertaining to the marine

environment.

As expressed previously, the acquisition of physical and biological data pertaining to the

marine environment is very expensive by virtue of the remote and challenging operating

conditions presented by the ocean environment. Given this expense, the ability for science

to respond to the knowledge challenges outlined in the Blueprint will require an efficient

approach to how ocean observation data is developed and accessed.

Monitoring infrastructure, and long term operational funding to operate it, is also key to

developing baseline and long term trends necessary to develop some of the knowledge

highlighted earlier in this paper. Currently regional and ‘bluewater’ monitoring is provided by

the Integrated Marine Observing System (IMOS), with a range of more concentrated near-

shore, near-activity, monitoring undertaken mainly by State agencies and operators. The

future needs of long terms monitoring, and the integration of various monitoring efforts may

need to be assessed against the needs identified by this blueprint.

There are a number of opportunities to improve the accessibility and efficiency of data use

that arise regularly. These include:

Improved accessibility to the data developed by offshore industry and government

agencies

Improved sharing between researchers

Consistent approaches to recording, storage and quality assurance of data

Use of the Pawsey Centre supercomputing capability

Scientists It is acknowledged that a substantial quantum of marine science capability exists outside of

the WAMSI partnership, including other academic institutions across Australia and the private

sector. Arguably, a major distinguishing feature of the marine scientific capability and

capacity as far as it pertains to the Western Australian marine environment is that, when

compared to other areas of scientific interest, a disproportionately large amount of scientific

capability and capacity resides with the private sector, rather than with the public sector

and public research organisations. This includes scientific expertise, research infrastructure

and biological and physical datasets.


42

Effectively and efficiently harnessing the net scientific capability for the purposes of

addressing the issues identified by the Blueprint will likely require significant inter-institutional

and inter-sector collaboration.

Infrastructure While Perth hosts some significant marine science facilities and laboratories, the 13,000

kilometre coast has limited other bases for research operations. This can increase the cost of

research, particularly in the distant north of the State and also limits some experimentation

due to issues associated with transferring sensitive species.


1. Have the main capabilities that are needed to support the emerging fields of

scientific investigation been identified in this section of the discussion paper?


43

The Requirement for Prioritisation As discussed in an earlier section of this paper, much is not known about the Western

Australian marine environment and marine science is expensive. This implies a need to focus

resources on priority knowledge requirements.

A need to focus on priority knowledge needs, in turn, requires the identification of a basis for

prioritisation. Determining the basis for prioritisation is challenging and this section of the

discussion paper outlines options for prioritising knowledge requirements.

Regional Prioritisation

The shear length of the Western Australian coastline suggests that determining prioritisation

on the basis of regional demarcation might be a sensible approach. The prioritisation of

regions could be based on a number of possible criteria such as:

Regions where we know the least about the marine environment

This would arguably mean that the marine environments off the Kimberley, Central

West and Southern coasts would be the priority areas.

Regions that are truly unique with respect to marine ecosystem and/or physical

ocean environment and which are relatively unspoilt.

This would prioritise the Kimberley region, a tropical marine wilderness with high tidal

movements.

Regions where the greatest economic development is occurring.

This would prioritise the Pilbara, Kimberley and Southwest marine environments

Regions that we know very little about, but which are about to undergo significant

economic activity.

This would prioritise the Kimberley marine environment, as while we may not

understand much about processes in the Pilbara and South West marine

environments, we at least have data that explains patterns. It would also potentially

prioritise the deeper, offshore areas of the economic exclusion zone in areas where

oil and gas development is and/or is likely to progress into deeper waters in the near

future.

Ocean Area Prioritisation

Whilst variable, our general knowledge of coastal, reef and near-shore environments along

much of the Western Australian coast is much greater than our knowledge of the outer

continental shelf and slope. This includes large areas of open-ocean between Albany and

Esperance on the south coast that have not been surveyed, as well as deeper ocean in the

Northwest where oil and gas development is likely to progress.

Ecosystem Prioritisation

Some key ecosystems such as Scott Reef, Shark Bay, Barrow Island, Ningaloo Reef, Abrolhus

Islands that are key sources of biota have been well studied. However, there are many other

marine ecosystems of which we know relatively less about such as the Rolley Shoals and

Wheatstone coral reefs. While many of these ecosystems are protected under the system of

Commonwealth Reserves discussed in an earlier section of this report, a better understanding

of these ecosystems will inform their future management.


44

Physical Oceanography

Because the Western Australian marine environment is so large, and by virtue of the Leeuwin

Current and other major physical ocean features, highly interconnected, there is an

argument that a deeper understanding of the physical oceanography along the Western

Australian coast will yield much greater knowledge dividends that research that is focused

on specific regions, areas of ocean or ecosystems. Furthermore, a deeper understanding of

the physical ocean and ability to model ocean physics along the Western Australian coast

will substantially improve our understanding of regions, areas of ocean and ecosystems and

their relationships. In turn, this offers the potential for offshore and coastal industries to better

design infrastructure, mitigate operational risks and respond to emergencies. It also offers the

potential for more efficient and effective coastal protection and marine reserve zoning and

design.

This basis of focus also delivers more immediate productivity dividends to investors and

operators of offshore economic activity and to the community.


1. Assuming that prioritisation is a necessary evil, what parameters determine the

prioritisation and what are the best criteria for prioritising investment in marine

science in Western Australia?

2. What are the lowest priorities for marine research in Western Australia, and why?


45

Moving Forward

This paper is not the Blueprint. Nor does it necessarily set a particular direction for the

Blueprint. Its sole purpose is to stimulate interest in the Blueprint and promote debate and

discussion on where the Blueprint should take marine science in Western Australia over the

next 35 years.

Under the guidance of WAMSI and the Blueprint Steering Group, Australian Venture

Consultants will continue to develop the Blueprint over the next few months with a

consultation draft available toward the end of this calendar year.

WAMSI and Australian Venture Consultants invite anyone or any organisation that is a

stakeholder in the Western Australian marine environment to offer a contribution to this

important research plan. Contributions can be made by contacting Australian Venture

Consultants directly or through WAMSI.

Contact:

Russell Barnett

Partner

Australian Venture Consultants

Email: [email protected]

Direct: 08 6555 0324

Mobile: 0438 710 917

Patrick Seares

CEO

Western Australian Marine Science Institution

Email: [email protected]

Direct: 08 6488 4571

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

western australian marine science institution · 2015-01-27 · australian venture consultants pty...

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