Western Civilization IHIS-101

UNIT 2 - Gods And Empires In The Ancient Near East (1700-500 BCE)

Rising Powers of the Near East The first half of the 2nd millennium BCE was a

time of transition and constant warfare This was due to numerous Indo-European tribes

moving into the Near East as well as Semitic tribes By the beginning of the late Bronze Age (1500-

1200 BCE), there were a number of major powers in the Near East

Anatolia was a region that was full of natural resources Previous civilizations had not take advantage of this The area had been ruled by Cappadocians but were

not organized like other civilizations

Rise of Anatolia Assyrians moved into Anatolia around1900 BCE

Created a vast trade network into region and take advantage of the resources available

Did not seek military gains Had a profound impact:

The became advisors to the Cappadocian kings They also married into Cappadocian families They brought Mesopotamian civilization and urbanization

with them

The Hittites moved into central Anatolia c. 2000 BCE Their city-states remained independent until 1700

BCE

Rise of Anatolia Hittite Old Kingdom (c. 1700-c.1500 BCE)

It was a very militaristic styled culture Hattusilis I (c.1650–c.1620 BCE)

Expanded the frontiers throughout the Anatolian Plateau

Controlled trade routes as a way to expand the kingdom’s economic capabilities

“Kingdom of a Thousand Gods” Mursilis I (c. 1620–c. 1590 BCE) continued on the

success Expanded the kingdom further into Syria and even into

Mesopotamia Sacked the city of Babylon c.1595 BCE, leaving it in

ruins

Hittites were one of the first civilizations to use war chariots on a widespread basis

Kassites Kassites moved into southern Mesopotamia in

c. 2000 BCE Historians believe they had migrated from the

Zagros Mountains in modern Iran Created the Middle Babylonian Kingdom (c.1531-

c.1155 BCE) This was after the city of Babylon had been sacked by

Hittites Lack of Kassite records from the time period They did trade extensively with the Assyrians,

Hittites, and Egyptians They brought peace and prosperity into the region

Mitanni Mitanni set up their kingdom in northern

Mesopotamia (c. 1500-1360 BCE) They were master horse trainers Used horses as new innovation in warfare

This included light, horse-drawn chariots that would carry archers into battle

They also developed excellent cavalry tactics Kingdom went into a decline after a renewed

attack by the Hittites The Hittites left the Mitanni Kingdom in tact to serve as

a buffer between them and the Assyrians

Coffin cover of King Intef VIII Sekhemreherhermaat 17th Dynasty (??? – 1566 BCE)

Second Intermediate Period Second Intermediate Period (c. 1783-1550 BCE)

Due to the weak control of 13th and 14th Dynasties rulers

Military became disorganized Hyksos invaded the delta region (c. 1750 BCE)

Unknown origins Might be of western Asiatic descent

“Hyksos” was derived from heka khasewet, meaning “foreign rulers”

This led to more instability in the region The nomes in Upper Egypt declared independence The Nubians to the south also broke free from Egyptian

control

Second Intermediate Period Upper Egypt remained under Egyptian control Hyksos took full control of Lower Egypt in 1663

BCE Adopted Egyptian traditions to legitimatize their rule Made some significant cultural improvements

Introduced bronze as a new and improved metal for making weapons and tools

Made improved weapons such as a heavier sword and a compound bow

Introduced horse-drawn war chariots

Egyptians used new technologies to overthrow the Hyksos Led by Ahmose I, who started the 18th Dynasty c.1550

Ahmose I Battling the Hyksos

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) New Kingdom Egypt was composed of the 18th

through 20th Dynasties There were significant changes to the Egyptian

style of government There was a new militaristic attitude

It was characterized by constant invasions and war campaigns (“defense through offense”)

Pharaohs themselves were trained as military leaders and spent time on campaigns

Rise of a new group: warrior aristocracy Made up of war commanders who grew

accustomed to working independently Wealth acquired through war

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) Pharaoh lost power to three strong institutions:

War Nobility Royal Bureaucracy Priesthood

18th Dynasty (1550-1292 BCE) Characterized by military expansion, imperialism

and prosperity Included some of the most powerful pharaohs in

history Ahmose I (1550-1525 BCE)

He conquered the Hyksos and reunified Egypt Also brought Nubia back under Egyptian control

New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1075 BCE) Thutmose I (c.1504-1492 BCE)

Major military leader Mastered the strategy of defense through offense Learned tactics from the Hyksos

Nubian Rebellion Thutmose led a campaign to defeat them During the battle, the King of Nubia was killed Thutmose supposedly hung the body from the prow of his

ship Led campaigns down south to the Fourth Cataract Drove to the Euphrates and into Syria and Palestine He held more territory than any other pharaoh

before him

New Kingdom Egypt

Hatshepsut and Thutmose III

Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE)

She had been Thutmose II’s Great Royal Wife Was regent for her stepson Thutmose III

She become the first female pharaoh Technically co-ruled with Thutmose III She embraced all aspects of being pharaoh:

Adopted a Horus name Dressed in pharaonic regalia (including a false beard) Was addressed as “His Majesty”

She had a very prosperous reign Her reign witnessed extensive building projects

Including her temple at Deir el Bahri

Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BCE) Hatshepsut died in 1458 BCE

Her cause of her death was unknown until recently There had been no record of it Historians had proposed both natural causes and murder

In 2007, her mummy was positively identified by DNA Her death was caused by an abscessed tooth

Damnatio memoriae (“Erasing from history”) After her death, many of her monuments were either

defaced or destroyed Historians are mixed as to who and why someone did

this Many suspect it was either Thutmose III or his son

Amenhotep II They speculate that Thutmose did it either as revenge or was

used as a way for either of them to legitimize their reigns

Hatshepsut’s family tree

Thutmose III and Amenhotep II Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE)

Considered one of the greatest pharaohs in Egyptian history

Over the course of his life, he conducted 17 military campaigns He captured over 350 cities He conquered Syria and defeated the Mitanni He also expanded Egypt south as far as the Fourth Cataract

in Nubia

Amenhotep II (1427-c.1400 BCE) In his military campaigns, his priority was to maintain

his father’s conquests He did not push for the same sort of expansion Egypt

had during his father’s reign

Akhenaten (1352-1336

BCE)

Rise of Amun-Ra Religious changes during the 18th Dynasty

Main deity was Amun-Ra Amun gained in popularity after the expulsion of the

Hyksos Patron deity of the city of Thebes which was home to the

pharaohs Was viewed as the protector of the rights of the poor

Eventually, he was identified with the chief deity, Ra-Herakhty (combination of Ra and Horus)

This led to the transformation of Amun into Amun-Ra This also led to his representation of Amun into the hidden

aspect of the solar deity (night) while Ra was the visible one (day)

The priesthood of Amun-Ra was incredibly powerful

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE)

His original name was Amenhotep IV (“Amun is Pleased”)

Attempted to bring monotheism to Egypt Akhenaten followed Aten as his main deity

Aten was the sun disc itself It was always drawn as light or sun rays and not in human form

Changed his name to Akhenaten (“the effective spirit of Aten”)

As part of his religious changes: Built a new capital Akhetaten (“the horizon of the

Aten”) Recognized Aten as the only true god (monotheism) Closed down the temples of other gods

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) Why did he switch away from Amun to Aten?

He may have been a revolutionary intellectual He broke the bounds of tradition (worshiping Amun-Ra) by

using insight and imagination to create a new cult of Aten He may have been reactionary, upset by the

blending of two gods, Amun and Ra, into one god He may have just been a typical politician

He wanted to weaken the strength and influence of Amun’s priests by bringing in a new religious regime

His attempt at religious change was a failure Most Egyptians were unwilling to change their

beliefs The priesthood of Amun put up strong resistance as

well

Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE) Akhenaten was not interested in military affairs

nor foreign policy Many revolts broke out in Egyptian controlled lands He fell out of favor with a number of important leaders All of this led to a loss of support by the military

nobility Ironically, a serious pandemic started in Egypt

It could have been the plague, polio, or influenza Some saw this as a sign that the cosmic order was

“out of whack” and blamed the pharaoh for this With his death, Aten fell out of favor

Amun-Ra became the primary deity once again

Tutankhamun (1333-1324

BCE)

Tutankhamun (1333-1324 BCE) Tutankhamun was 9 years old when he took the throne

He was originally named Tutankhaten (“living image of Aten”)

It was changed it to Tutankhamun (“living image of Amun”) His main focus was to destroy his father’s work

Akhentaten’s monuments were destroyed The capital was moved back to Thebes

During his reign, there was a continued decline in Egyptian power This was especially true in terms of foreign relationships

His death at the age of 19 is still being studied In 2010, after DNA testing done, it is believed his death was

due to a combination of the leg injury and severe malaria

International System From 1500 to 1200 BCE, a complex system of

trade and diplomacy developed During this time, there was a move from military

expansionism and war to a more stable, peaceful co-existence

Leaders realized that wars were too costly It was more favorable for them to be at peace and

have trade channels open As part of his diplomacy, leaders would

correspond with one another A standard set of written etiquette was used They would also exchange gifts and arrange

marriages to secure alliances

International System International trade also flourished during this

period Countries were able to sell their goods in far markets Any type of import was in high demand Trade of goods and ideas led to greater

understanding between cultures Increase in trade led to greater dependence on

goods from other countries Countries become mutually dependant on one

another economically This could be disastrous if one country’s economy

collapsed Trade expanded into more unstable regions

Minoan Crete

Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete Earliest civilization in the Aegean was found on

Crete Ancient Greek civilization had its roots in Minoan

civilization Minoan civilization was first discovered by Sir

Arthur Evans in 1900 Uncovered the palace of Knossos Named the culture “Minoan” after King Minos of Greek

myth The palace at Knossos was built during the Neopalatial

Period (1700-1450 BCE) It was a thalassocracy during the late Bronze Age

It was a sea empire with a powerful navy Participated in expansive overseas trade throughout

the Mediterranean region

A fresco inside Knossos

Aegean Civilization: Minoan Crete Developed Linear-A, their written language

Was not similar to any other written language of the time

Prior to 1600 BCE, the Minoans were more sophisticated that the mainland Greeks They had a strong influence on the area and most

likely dominated the Greeks culturally and possibly politically

Around 1450 BCE, Minoan civilization suffered a sudden and catastrophic collapse Many historians believed that the collapse was due to

invasions by the mainland Greeks However, new evidence is coming about that the

eruption of nearby Thera had an impact

Mycenaean Greece Though they had been dominated by the

Minoans, the Greeks started to come into their own around 1600 BCE

Mycenaean Greece (1600-1100 BCE) Bronze Age or “pre-Hellenic” Greece Individual city-states develop during this time

They were theocracies headed by a king, who was also a war leader

Mycenaean Greece was a warrior society They prided themselves with their warrior deeds Artwork of the time included murals of hunting and

battle scenes They expanded their territory through military means By 1400 BCE, they had invaded Crete and taken the

palace at Knossos

Mycenaean Greece They adopted many of the aspects of Minoan

civilization They were a thalassocracy Transformed the Minoan Linear A alphabet into their

own Linear B—the earliest Greek writing By the 13th century BCE, Mycenaean Greece was

on the decline It started out as internal conflicts between the cities By 1100 BCE, Mycenaean culture had ended

Historians debate the cause of this collapse Most believe that it was internal collapse Earthquakes, drought, famine, and disease could have

played a part More recently, historians believe it was due to the Sea

People

The Sea People

The Sea People The Sea People

Began invading the Near East in the 12th century BCE Historians know very little about this group

They were most likely displaced refugees who were fleeing widespread crop failure and famine

Their path of destruction started in the north Disrupted the trade network of the Aegean

region Kingdoms faced overpopulation from those fleeing

Greece This led to widespread food shortages and warfare

Moved into Anatolia and the eastern Mediterranean bringing total destruction Hittite kingdom was destroyed

The Sea People They eventually came in contact with Egypt

They attacked during the reign of Ramses III (c.1185 BCE) but were quickly defeated both on land and at sea

Nearly completely destroyed Near East civilization Destroyed the international system Destroyed the civilizations of the Mycenaean

Greece, Hittites, and the Kassites Egypt and Assyria went into a long period of

economic and political decline This was mainly due to the loss of their major trading

partners “Bronze Age collapse”

Drawing of relief of the Sea People on Medinet Habu temple

Early Iron Age States During the early Iron Age, there are three

civilizations that develop in the eastern Mediterranean The Phoenicians, Philistines, and Hebrews

Phoenicians lived in modern day Lebanon and Syria Arrived in the area around 3000 BCE

Probably came from the Persian Gulf region Were best known as traders and colonizers The name Phoenicia in Greek means “purple people”

This was derived from the valuable purple-red dye, Tyrian purple, which was made from the Murex snail

The high point of Phoenician power and culture was between 1200-800 BCE

The Phoenicians Prior to 1200 BCE, many Phoenician cities had been

controlled by Egypt With the invasion of the Sea Peoples, the Phoenicians

were able to wrest free from Egyptian control Their prosperity was based on an expansion of trade

routes and accumulation of wealth The city of Byblos became the center of papyrus trade

It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world They also built colonies throughout the Mediterranean

The main impact they had was their writing system It was created at Byblos and was based on a Semitic

alphabet The Phoenician alphabet was later adapted and modified

by the Greeks, Romans, and Hebrews

Phoenician alphabet in relation to other alphabets

The Philistines The Philistines dominated the eastern

Mediterranean from 1100-1000 BCE They were descended from one of the tribes of the Sea

People Once settled in this region, they grew olive trees and

grapevines They used their profits to raise armies to secure

their power in the region Quickly took power from their weaker, unorganized

neighbors Established monopolies on the economy and iron-

smithing Left no written records

Our history of them is dependent upon the Hebrew histories

The Hebrews Unlike the Philistines, the Hebrews wrote a

history This later became the Hebrew Bible and the Old

Testament of the Christian Bible Written over the course of many centuries Many of the works in the first five books of the Bible

were retellings of old Near East stories After that, the information becomes more credible

In the Book of Judges, the Hebrews started out as wandering pastoral tribes They were organized into 12 tribes, each ruled by a

judge They settled in the Levant permanently by 1200 BCE

Roughly at the same time as the Phillistines

The Hebrews Conflict with the Philistines forced the Hebrews to

unite This led to the crowning of the first king of Israel

Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE) He had been appointed by one of the tribal judges,

Samuel The first part of Saul’s reign was successful as he

defeated the Philistines and drove them out of Israel However, Saul lost favor with Samuel

By losing favor, he lost the religious sanctions for his battles and popular support

Samuel decided to put his backing behind David instead David had been one of Saul’s lieutenants Saul attempted numerous assassinations against David and

finally expelled from court

The Hebrews David became an independent mercenary fighter

He even fought for the Philistines He used the profits from raids to help the other

leaders break free of Saul’s control Saul and his son were killed in battle in 1000 BCE David (c. 1000-973 BCE)

He was able to defeat the Philistines and captured Jerusalem This city was made the political and religious capital of Israel

Solomon - (973-937 BCE) He continued to strengthen royal power during his

reign Unfortunately he did so through ruthlessness and brutality

He is best known for his building projects Many of his subjects were required to perform forced labor

The Hebrews When his son, Rehoboam, came to power, he

planned on keep up the harsh policies of his father In 922 BCE, a rebellion broke out against him and

the Kingdom of Israel broke away from Judah Israel was now divided into two parts:

Kingdom of Israel Composed of ten of the original twelve tribes with its

capital in Samaria It was eventually destroyed in 722 by the Assyrians

Kingdom of Judah Composed of the other two tribes and had its capital at

Jerusalem It was conquered by the Chaldeans in 586

The Assyrian Empire During most of the 2nd millennium BCE, Assyria

was not independent In the late Bronze Age, they were a dependency of the

Mitanni Their chance for independence came in 1362 BCE

The Mitanni were occupied with fighting the Hittites Assur-uballit I (1362-1327 BCE)

The governor of the city of Assur With the help of the Hittites he destroyed the Mitanni

and declared Assyrian independence Later in his reign, he allied with the Kassites in

Babylon to end Hittite domination in the region This began the Middle Assyrian Kingdom (1362-859

BCE)

Middle Assyrian Kingdom Tukulti-Ninurta I (1243-1207 BCE)

Extended the borders of the Assyrian empire through conquest

Sacked the city of Babylon and took the Kassite king into captivity

When the Babylonians rebelled against Tukulti-Ninurta, he ransacked the temples He also took the statue of the city’s patron deity, Marduk,

with him This was seen as sacrilege to both the Babylonians and the

Assyrians A mob led by his son murdered Tukulti-Ninurta by

setting his palace on fire and burning him to death What followed was a long period of Assyrian

decline as Babylonia expanded in power

Middle Assyrian Kingdom Assurnasirpal II (883-859 BCE)

He was a brilliant but brutal military leader Expanded the borders of the empire to the

Mediterranean He instituted a reign of terror

If a region did not pay tribute, they would suffer the wrath of his army

Those who opposed them were publicly tortured or killed Was a brilliant administrator

Reorganized his government by placing Assyrian administrators in the provinces

He used captives from campaigns to rebuild the capital He also used them to build temples and monuments

The end of his reign marked the end of the Middle Assyrian Kingdom

Neo-Assyrian Empire (859-627 BCE) Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE)

He seized the throne in 744 Expanded Assyria

Subjugated Babylonia Took Syria and forced leaders to pay tribute

When he died, many of the newly conquered lands revolted Historians speculate that they thought Assyria would have

a weak ruler, as this seemed to be a pattern Sargon II (722-705 BCE)

This started one of the most magnificent periods in Assyrian history

He continued to expand Assyria He conquering Israel and turned Judah into a vassal state He also expanded east into Iran

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) Sargon’s descendents helped Assyria became the

dominant power in the Near East Why was the Neo-Assyrian Empire so successful in

its domination of the Near East? Not only were the kings powerful but they had

competent administrations Kings were seen as the earthly representative of the god Assur It had an extensive bureaucracy comprised of governors,

priests, and military leaders Assyrians would be placed in positions of power in conquered

territories They developed a fantastic infrastructure for the empire

They built roads throughout the empire and set up a network of posting stations that used relays of horses to carry messages

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) The most important aspect was its military There were two key characteristics of the military:

Holy war As part of the holy war, Assyrian kings believed that their

expansion was part of a divine mission and that it was the will of Assur

Anybody who did not accept this was considered an enemy and conquered

Reign of terror Other cities’ gods would be humiliated or “captured” and then

the conquered cities would also be forced to worship Assur If the lands did not pay tribute, it would be extracted by force The Assyrians would even raid conquered areas every year to

keep the subjects in place

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) The Assyrian army held over 100,000 members

It was well organized, disciplined, and diverse It contained an infantry, cavalry, and horse-drawn war

chariots It also had specialized units such as language interpreters,

intelligence officers, and scribes They were well-equipped with iron weapons and armor

Because of this diversity, the army was able to use a variety of military tactics depending on the geography of the area

Warfare was savage Mutilations of prisoners, decapitations, rape, and the

mass deportations and/or enslavement of the civilian population was commonplace

Neo-Assyrian Empire (c.911-609 BCE) Assyrians were also masters of siege warfare

Had numerous siege weapons including siege towers and battering rams

Sappers would dig tunnels to undermine the walls’ foundations and cause them to collapse

Army would cut off supply lines so if the city did not fall, they could be starved into submission

Their use of terror as a weapon was highly effective They laid waste to the land they were fighting by

setting crops on fire, smashing dams, cutting down trees and destroying towns

They committed atrocities against people, especially those who rebelled

Many prisoners were deported and used for labor

Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)

Decline of the Assyrian Empire Assurbanipal (669-627 BCE)

He was considered the last of the great rulers of Assyria He was considered an “enlightened” king as he had

received a scholarly education since he was not first in line for the throne Built the great library in Nineveh, the first systematically

organized library in the ancient Near East The culture and art of the empire hit its peak during his reign

He continued to solidify and stabilize the empire He used the same military tactics used by his predecessors

At the time of his death, the empire was at its peak The borders were secure and the realm was largely at

peace The realm was enjoying a period of cultural glory

Decline of the Assyrian Empire By the end of the 7th century BCE, it was clear that

the empire was greatly over-extended Overexpansion paved the way for internal strife

between nobles There was also a lot of resentment by the subjects

towards the Assyrians A coalition was formed between the Chaldeans,

Medes (Iran), and other states in Mesopotamia against Assyria Under the leadership of the Chaldean ruler,

Nabopolassar, they successfully lead a revolt against Assyria in 626 BCE

They went on to burn down the city of Nineveh in 612 BCE

Neo-Babylonian Empire

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE) The Chaldeans were successful at breaking free

from Assyrian control Nabopolassar (625-605 BCE)

Established a new monarchy in Babylonia This was known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire

Nebuchadnezzer (605-562 BCE) He achieved the final defeat of the Assyrian empire

in 605 BCE He went conquer of Syria and Palestine

This included destroying the city of Jerusalem and its temple

Tens of thousands of Hebrews were taken into Babylon in exile which became known as the Babylonian Captivity

Neo-Babylonian Empire (625-539 BCE) Nebuchadnezzar's marked a period of

prosperity for the Babylonians Lucrative trading routes throughout Mesopotamia Created a lot of industry for textiles and metals

The city of Babylon became one of the greatest cities of ancient times He had built the Hanging Gardens, one of the

seven wonders of the ancient world He also had built numerous temples and palaces

While the Chaldeans did not have as impressive a military as Assyria, this empire was not going to last as long

Persian Empire Very little is known about the Persians prior to

the 6th century BCE Starting in the mid-8th century, both the Medes and

the Persians began to form confederations of tribes Cyrus the Great (559-530 BCE)

While he was a prince, he organized the Persians into a single tribe in 559 BCE and made himself king

In 549 BCE, he conquered the Medes He made Media the first Persian satrapy or province

He then turned to the kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia It was rich with numerous gold and silver mines King Croesus of Lydia tried to make a preemptive

strike against Persia but failed

Cyrus the Great (559-530

BCE)

Persian Empire Next, Cyrus next focused on the kingdom of

Babylonia He was able to take Babylonia in 539 BCE with little

resistance Cyrus turned Babylonia into a Persian satrapy but

kept many Babylonians in positions of power From 538 to 530 BCE, Cyrus concentrated on

consolidating his empire He sought favor from the priesthoods in conquered

lands He did this by restoring temples and allowing a large

amount of religious toleration Through his actions, he won approval the conquered

nations who accepted him as the legitimate ruler In 530 BCE, Cyrus was killed in battle

Persian conquests during the reign of Cyrus the Great

Persian Empire Cambyses II (530-522 BCE)

He was one of Cyrus’ sons In 525 BCE, he conquered Egypt Cambyses died in 522 BCE

Because he left no heir, an intense civil war tore through Persia for a year

Darius (521-486 BCE) During the early part of his reign, revolts broke

out throughout the empire as many disputed his claim to the throne

Once those were suppressed, he worked to strengthen the empire both from the inside and out

Darius the Great (521-486 BCE)

Persian Empire Darius continued Cyrus’ policy of tolerance

throughout his empire In most cases, the locals were able to retain many

of their institutions, including religious toleration Darius reworked the empire’s infrastructure

Developed a postal system A “post” acted as a relay stage, with no more than one

day’s ride from the next post This also included an extensive spy network

Built the “Royal Road” which was over 1,600 miles long

Codified a legal system based on Egyptian law Standardized coinage, weights, and measures Reorganized the empire into twenty satrapies

Persian Empire Darius reorganized of the military

It composed of people from all parts of the empire Had four branches to the military

Infantry The “Immortals” were an elite infantry force of 10,000 Cavalry Navy which included ships from conquered states

With his military, Darius expanded Persia even farther Conquered parts of India to the east Conquered Thrace and Macedonia to the west Had control of the straights into the Black Sea

By 500 BCE, Darius was in control of most of the Near East

Zoroastrianism Another major contribution the Persians made

was in terms of religion During the 6th century BCE, Persians began to

follow Zoroastrianism Zoroaster (c.628-c.551 BCE) was a Persian holy man His spiritual revelations led him to develop a more

humane religion by eliminating animal sacrifice and magic

The main tenet of Zoroastrianism is monotheism Ahura-Mazda (“the wise lord”) was the one supreme

god He embodied and created all that was good

If Ahura-Mazda embodied only the good, how do you explain the bad?

Zoroastrianism Ahriman was the evil “counter-deity”

He was the creator of all things evil This explained the evil of the world

Ahura-Mazda gave humans free will to choose between right and wrong There would be a constant struggle between good and

evil in which good will win It did not focus on the exaltation of one god but

rather promoted sinless lives, truth, and love Zoroaster believed in individual judgment at

death If a person had done good deeds, they would go to

paradise If they did not, they would go to a sort of hell

Relief of Ahura-Mazda in Persepolis

Hebrew Monotheism The early Hebrews worshipped many gods

Yahweh was only one gods worshipped by the Hebrews Around the 10th century BCE, they focused their

attention just on Yahweh They believed other gods existed but refused to worship

them (monolatry) Yahweh was viewed in a traditional way in that his

“territory” was limited to lands occupied by the Hebrews Historians are unsure of the reasons for such a dramatic

change Around 750 BCE Hebrew theology took another turn

The transformation to transcendent theology takes place Yahweh is now seen as omnipotent, no longer attached to a

physical existence

Hebrew Monotheism Hebrew religion was forced to change during

Assyrian domination Prophets pushed to keep their unique Hebrew identity

by dropping monolatry and embracing monotheism The prophets also encouraged the Hebrews to live

ethical lives This also included an end to ritual and sacrifice

Forced to change again during the Babylonian Captivity As they were forced to leave the Holy Land, their tie to

Yahweh needed to changed The Prophet Ezekiel stated that states, empires, and thrones

were not important The most important was the relationship between God and His

people This meant that Judaism became a universal religion,

not one tied to any particular political entity or a place

Hebrew Monotheism Many scholars feel that this adaptation of

religion helped the Hebrew religion survive such numerous attacks

In 538 BCE, Cyrus of Persia allowed the Hebrews back into Jerusalem He helped rebuild their temple

With their return to the Holy Land, their worship of Yahweh continued They believed that humans had obligations to

their creator rather than it having ties to a place or political entity continued