Western Civilization IIHIS-102

Unit 4 - The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was one of the major

revolutions of the modern period Saw changes in astronomy, physics, biology, and

chemistry 150 year process

It is said to have started in 1543 Copernicus’ On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres

(1543) It ended with Newton

It was comprised of three parts: Acceptance and confirmation of the heliocentric view of

the universe Development of new physics that supported this Development of a method of enquiry (the “scientific

method”)

Causes of the Scientific Revolution Scientific Revolution had its origins in the Middle

Ages Push for better understand of the natural world as

created by God Christian Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism

Thomas Aquinas God created a world capable of being understood by

human reason Faith as the certain and complete road to God Reason as a divine attribute spurring mankind to

salvation Encouraged rational argument and investigation Believed that mathematics were a key tool to

understanding God’s design

Causes of the Scientific Revolution In the 14th century more changes were made The Nominalists

Nature was distinct from God the Creator Only revelation and faith could reveal God’s truth Freed the investigation of the natural world from

theology Opened the way for a mechanistic or materialist

worldview The Renaissance

Humanists placed low value on science Neoplatonist influence The universe as machine Investigation of the laws of perspective and optics Alchemy and astrology

Aristotle (384–322 BCE)

Medieval Science Medieval science was based on common-

sense observations Aristotle and Ptolemy

Explanations of the whole universe The orderliness of the cosmos

Nothing changes, everything moves in perfect circles The fundamental elements

Earth, air, fire, water, aether The problem of retrograde motion

Example: Mars Main problem with this system was that the

old Roman calendar out of alignment with movement of heavenly bodies

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Polish scientist, mathematician, and devout Catholic Was the first to seriously question the Ptolemaic

System How God could create such a messy system?

Copernicus’ Heliocentric View On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres (1543) Based on mathematical calculations The universe was made up of eight spheres with the

sun at the center The planets revolved around the sun The Earth has three motions that explained the

movement of the sun and stars (daily rotation, annual revolution, and annual tilting of its axis)

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) This was a huge breakthrough

He used math to invalidate Ptolemy It was still conservative

He used conservative math, not observation Kept the Aristotelian concept of circular orbits Used it to explain the perfection of God’s design

One big problem: What he had designed went against the Bible In both Psalms 93:1 and 96:10 it said that “the

world is established, it cannot be moved”

Copernicus’ Heliocentric View of the Universe

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)

He was a Danish nobleman Best known for his astronomical observations Built an observatory on the island of Hven

Observations of the night sky For 21 years, Brahe made observations of the

heavens He complied the most accurate maps of the sky at

this time Each year he went over his observations and

corrected them He rejected both Ptolemy and Copernicus

Instead he came up with his own model

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Tychonian System

All planets, except for the Earth, revolved around the sun This whole system then revolved around the Earth He still accepted the Aristotelian concept of circular

orbits Also avoided the theological problems that Copernicus

had He also led a very interesting life Even his death was interesting

The old belief was that he died due to a ruptured bladder In 1996, his body was examined and there was a large

amount of mercury in his hair and body Death was either accidental or murder

Tychonian System of the Universe

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

Was one of Brahe’s assistants Combined Copernicus’s observations with

mysticism, astrology, and mathematics Kepler took all of Brahe’s instruments and

observations When he tried to apply Brahe’s observations to

Copernicus’ theory, it did not work out Kepler’s Observations

Spent 25 years going over Brahe’s work to find the flaw

He discovered the flaw was with Copernicus Testing numerous hypotheses, he came up with his

laws

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion

These were published in Astronomia nova (A New Astronomy) in 1609

Discovered that orbits are elliptical This destroyed the Aristotelian system

There were still problems with his laws He did not understand the reason behind the

ellipses If the earth is moving so fast, why do we not move

horizontally when we jump? Magnetism

He believed that magnetism between the sun and the planets kept the latter in orbital motion

However was rejected as sounding too “magical”

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Born of a lesser noble Pisan family Studied medicine then math at the University of Pisa In 1589, he became the chair of mathematics at the

University In 1592, he began teaching math at the University

of Padua Contributions to astronomy

Improved the design of the original telescope by making a 20x telescope in 1609

Used his new telescope to observe the heavens He discovered craters and mountains on the moon He also discovered the Jupiter had four moons

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Sidereus Nuncius (“Starry Messenger”) (1610)

Stated the moon was not the “perfect” or “ethereal” surface Aristotle predicted

Stated that the moons of Jupiter were actually orbiting around the planet

Letters on Sunspots (1613) Galileo supported the heliocentric view of the universe It also showed that the sun was also flawed

Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems (1632) Examined both the Ptolemaic and Copernican views Most of the work focused on supporting the Copernican

view It had been cleared by Inquisition censors

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Contributions to motion

Galileo’s Principle of Inertia - A body continues to move in a certain direction unless stopped

Based on experiments and observation Was able to tie in motion of the earth to astronomy

Discourses on Two New Sciences (1638) It included the Law of Falling Bodies All bodies, regardless of mass, fall at the same rate of

speed Planets also fall at the same rate of speed Orbits vary not to the size of the planet but the size of

the orbits Challenged Aristotle on many grounds Dropping objects from Leaning Tower of Pisa?

Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)

Reaction of the Catholic Church Catholic Church would not accept any

scientific ideas that threatened church beliefs Jesuits believed these would weaken the Church Dominicans supported Aristotelian beliefs

Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) Believed that stars were other suns and there was

a plurality of worlds Stated that the universe was infinite Burned at the stake by the Inquisition on charges

of heresy, blasphemy, and “immoral conduct”

Reaction of the Catholic Church Church challenged the Copernican System after

1600 Argued that the Copernican system was just not possible It condemned Copernicanism

Galileo did not believe his work was heretical Parts of the Bible should not be taken literally Stated the Scripture cannot be wrong but man can

misinterpret Believed that the Bible should not be used to understand

the heavens In 1615, Galileo wrote a letter to the Grand Duchess

of Tuscany Argued for separation of theology and science God endowed us with reason to understand the universe

Reaction of the Catholic Church In 1616, Galileo asked the Church to not ban his

ideas Cardinal Robert Bellarmine told him to teach his

system only as a hypothesis, to as fact He agreed

This changed after publication of Dialogue (1632) In 1633, Galileo was brought before the

Inquisition Charges were suspicion of heresy He was forced to recant heliocentrism He was placed under house arrest Dialogues was banned Pope Urban VIII issued a papal decree which stated it

was heresy to believe in heliocentrism

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Development of Scientific Method

Wanted to find a proper way to examine the natural world

This meant trashing old ideas and coming up with new ones

Two main figures: Bacon and Descartes Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

Attended Trinity College, Cambridge Discovered Aristotelian methods were incorrect and

led to the wrong conclusion He was a judge and Lord Chancellor Was interested in natural philosophy and the search

for the truth

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Meditationes Sacrae (1597)

Most famous for the line “scientia potentia est” or “knowledge is power”

The Proficience and Advancement of Learning (1605) Discredited the methods of the current natural

philosophers They were using ancient methods which were incorrect

Novum Organum (1620) Scientists would never learn anything unless they changed

their methods Inductive reasoning - Use observations to draw general

conclusions and then repeating experiments for verification

This became known as the scientific method

René Descartes (1596-1650)

René Descartes (1596-1650) René Descartes (1596-1650)

The importance of questioning established knowledge

The value of an idea is its usefulness Discourse on Method (1637)

Doubted everything including his own existence Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore I am”) From there was able to reestablish knowledge

using deductive reasoning Meditations on First Philosophy (1641)

“Proved” the existence of God Dualism between the mind and the body

René Descartes (1596-1650) The deductive method

Reasoning from a set of first principles Organized his logic on mathematical lines Mathematics as a tool for natural philosophers

Toward a purely mechanistic view of the world Man as machine All of creation, except man, existed solely in terms

of physical laws Descartes died on February 11, 1650

Attending the court of Queen Christina of Sweden She was an early riser while he was not Developed pneumonia and died ten days later

René Descartes (1596-1650) In 1667, Descartes’ works were placed on the

Catholic church’s “Index of Prohibited Books” This was mainly due to his rejection of religious

influence in his studies Also, he condemned the Aristotelian method of science

Key impact on the scientific method He emphasized deduction and mathematical logic Complimented Bacon’s work of experiments and

induction Newton is going to take it to the next level

Used Bacon’s empiricism with Descartes’ rationalism This led to the use of systematic observations and

experiments

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727)

English mathematician and experimenter One of the greatest scientific minds of western

civilization He was secretive, obsessive, vindictive, and petty Went to Trinity College, Cambridge for math

Developing Calculus Plague of 1666 forced him home for 18 months Invented calculus and started working on his law of

gravity Work in Optics

From1670 to 1672, devoted himself to optics Invented a reflecting telescope

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Contributions to mechanics

In 1677, began working on the role of gravity Worked on Galileo’s Theory of Inertia and Kepler’s

Law of Planetary Motion Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy

(1687) Better known as Principia Defined his three laws of motion “For every action, there is always an equal and

opposite reaction” Applied them to both planetary bodies and

terrestrial objects Law of Universal Gravity

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727) What makes Newton so special?

Took the work of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and created one solid theory

The universe operated as one regulated and uniform machine

All of this was backed by observation, experience, and math

Calculus controversy Did Newton really invent it? Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716) developed calculus later

than Newton However, published before Newton did Most scholars agree that the two developed it

independently of one another

Reading from Molière (1728)

The Enlightenment Enlightenment

Intellectual and cultural movement of the 18th century Used Scientific Revolution to reexamine all aspects of

life Period of skepticism and criticism of traditional values,

beliefs, and institutions Discarded dogma, superstition, and the opinions of

others Goal: gain an understanding solely through the use of

reason Main concerns of Enlightened thinkers:

Danger of unchecked and arbitrary authority Value of religious toleration Importance of natural law, reason, and human dignity

Leading to Enlightenment England was the starting point for the

Enlightenment During 17th century, progressive ideas and developments Home of Newton and Locke Impact of the Glorious Revolution (1688)

French philosophes examined England Voltaire visited there and praised its system Montesquieu used it as the basis of his separation of

powers Paths to the Enlightenment:

Popularization of science Rise of a new skepticism Impact of travel literature Legacy of Newton and Locke

Bernand de Fontenelle (1657-

1757)

Popularization of Science Science during the 17th century did not affect the

masses Works of natural philosophers only affected a small

minority Most of what was written could not be understood by the

average person Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)

Secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science (1691-1741)

Main contribution was bringing science to the upper class Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)

Written in French instead of Latin More accessible to the non-scientific population Story is about how a man explains the heliocentric view

of the universe in layman’s terms to his lover

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)

A New Skepticism Major impact of the Scientific Revolution was the

population becoming more educated The more people knew about nature and the universe,

the more they started to question religious truths and doctrines

This led to growing secularization and the rise of skepticism

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) French Huguenot scholar and philosopher Attacked many of the traditional religious attitudes:

superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism Said that you cannot prove which beliefs are true and

false Therefore, all beliefs should be tolerated

A New Skepticism Morality was separate from religious beliefs

A group of atheists could be more moral than a group of Christians

Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697) Starts to question the sources of the Bible Israeli King David was not the heroic king so often

portrayed In actuality, he was a vicious leader who pillaged,

tortured, and murdered innocent victims The book was banned in France Placed on the Index of Prohibited Books shortly

after it was published

Captain James Cook (1728-1779)

Impact of Travel Literature During this period, travel literature was popular

Many explorers began to publish accounts of their travels

Examined the new cultures of the world Showed how advanced some of them were China was considered a highly developed civilization

with a morally superior form of religion in their Confucianism

Other cultures became known and respected This led to the rise of cultural relativism Were more simpler than European ones and they were

happier “The life of savages is so simple, and our societies are

such complicated machines!...They understand nothing about our manner or our laws, and they are bound to see in them nothing but shackles disguised in a hundred different ways.”

Impact of Travel Literature Captain James Cook (1728-1779)

Captain of H.M. Bark Endeavour Traveled around the world three times Discovered New Zealand, Tahiti, and eastern shore

of Australia Charted most of the south Pacific

“Endeavour” Journals (1768-1771) Written during his first voyage around the world Focused on his discoveries in the Pacific Discussed the use citrus fruits to help ward off

scurvy Also how he kept his crew in shape through exercise His book became a best seller

John Locke (1632-1704)

The Legacy of Newton and Locke Both gave the intellectual inspiration for the

Enlightenment Impact of Newton

Through his physics, Newton gave a better understanding of the universe

If there were laws to the universe, could there be laws to mankind?

John Locke (1632-1704) English philosopher Tried to find the laws of mankind in terms of

politics and justice Set the stage for Classical Liberalism

John Locke (1632-1704) Two Treaties On Government (1689)

Criticizes the concept of Divine Right of Kings Government is a social contract with the people It is designed to protect man’s natural rights (life,

liberty, property) If the people do not like what the government is

doing, they have a right to overthrow it Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)

Every person is born with a tabula rasa (“blank slate”)

Our knowledge comes from our environment Evil is not hereditary but something that has to be

learned New governments and societies could be created

using reason and natural laws

Voltaire (1694-

1778)

The Philosophes Philosophes

A “free thinker” unhampered by the constraints of religion or dogma in any form

Few were actual philosophers and not all of them were French

Included everything from professors to political scientists to social reformers

Wanted “to study society with the purpose of making his kind better and happier”

Salons Hosted by salonnières, aristocratic women Gatherings of elite of society and the philosophes Helped spread ideas outside of academia Helped to educate women

Voltaire (1694-1778) Voltaire (1694-1778)

Born François Marie Arouet He was a writer, philosopher, and deist Used satire to criticize many of the institutions of the

day Targeted the French government and the Catholic

Church Wrote during a time period of censorship

Early Works Made satirical criticisms of the French aristocracy Served time in the Bastille for libel when he was in his

20s He was temporarily exiled in England in 1724 While he was there, he became a great admirer of all

things English (especially Newton and Locke)

Voltaire (1694-1778) Philosophical Letters (1734)

Written after he returned to France It was also known as Letters on the English Nation Compared a healthy and rational nation (Great Britain)

to a very unhealthy one (France) Discussed the religious and political liberties of the

British Showed great admiration for English culture and

politics and respect for scientists Praised Britain for having more religious toleration than

France Candide (1759)

Criticized Leibnitzian Optimism (“we live in the best of all possible worlds”)

Mocked every institution and aspect of the aristocracy

Voltaire (1694-1778) Philosophy

Promoted toleration, civil rights, and free speech Was very anti-clerical

Écrasez l’infâme (“crush infamy”) Saw infamy as all forms of repression, fanaticism,

and bigotry Especially saw this in the Church Calas case

Was strongly opposed to religious bigotry Sought to free religion of superstition “The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the

less fanaticism, the less misery Not against religion but rather against narrow

dogma

Voltaire (1694-1778) He was a big believer in civil liberties

He once said to a political opponent: “I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it”

Saw inspiration in “enlightened despotism” Still viewed monarchy as necessary

Voltaire’s works caused him many problems He was forced into temporary exile numerous

times His books were banned and burned However, because of his popularity, the French

kings had to tolerate him

Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Philosophe and political writer Was more cautious and less provocative in his work Born into a noble family Became magistrate in the parlement of Bordeaux

Persian Letters (1721) Story of two Persians travelling to Paris Examination of Parisian life through the eyes of

foreigners Criticized all aspects of France (e.g., criminal justice

system, lack of equality between sexes, etc.) Was able to criticize society and avoid censorship

Montesquieu (1689-1755) The Spirit of Laws (1748)

Examined different types of governments using an empirical approach

Believed there were three different types of governments

Republic was either a democracy or rule by an aristocracy (virtue)

Monarchy was limited by the law (honor) Despotism does not follow the law and there is

fear of the ruler (fear) There was no one perfect type of government that

would work everywhere Each country’s system should be based on its

traditions and cultures For example, hot climates should have despotism

to get people working

Montesquieu (1689-1755) Balance of Power

Most important section of Spirit focused on separation and balance of power

Built upon the structure set up in England Major influence on the writers of the U.S.

constitution Criticism of France

Realized France was drifting towards despotism Wanted to use either the parlements or the

aristocracy to counter-balance the monarchy However, aristocracy was very corrupt during this

period

Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopédie, or a systematic dictionary of the

sciences, arts, and crafts (1751-1772) A 28 volume set that he edited Its main goal was to change the way people

thought "All things must be examined, debated,

investigated without exception and without regard for anyone's feelings“

Even though the cost was high, it still had high circulation despite the high price

Articles were written by numerous philosophes Attacked religious dogma and superstition Encouraged religious toleration

Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Philosophy

He liked to comment on the more popular themes at the time

Mainly discussed Christianity and government Christianity was “the most absurd and the

most atrocious in its dogma” Went from being a deist to an atheist

Attacked the monarchy “Man will never be free until the last king is

strangled with the entrails of the last priest” “And his hands would plait the priest's entrails, For

want of a rope, to strangle kings.”

Page from the Encyclopédie It illustrates

Truth in the middle shining its light

Humanitarianism Humanitarianism

Focused on the dignity and worth of all individuals This had many different aspects including legal

reform Criminals were subject to torture

Including branding, whipping and various forms of mutilation

Numerous crimes involved the death penalty There were public executions

Trial of Jean Calas (1762) Illustrated the flaws with the criminal justice system Calas was found guilty of murdering his son Argued that Calas, a protestant, wanted to kill his

son to prevent him from converting to Catholicism There was no proof of this

Humanitarianism Punishment included being tortured twice and

then put to death First round of torture was to garner a confession Second round was to find his accomplices Included having his arms and legs slowly pulled

apart, having gallons of water poured down his throat, and then “broken on the wheel” in public

He then had his head cut off Voltaire took on this case

Became his own crusade against anti-Protestant fanaticism

Convinced the court in 1765 that Calas was actually innocent

Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)

Humanitarianism Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794)

He was an Italian jurist who focused on humanitarianism and legal reform

On Crimes and Punishments (1764) Attacked the common view that punishment

represented society’s vengeance on the criminal Argued that the legitimate rationale for punishment

was to maintain social order and prevent other crimes (deterrence)

Exposed the public to horrors of torture being used Also illustrated the dehumanizing process of public

executions By 1800, a number of countries eliminated torture

and limited the death penalty to capital crimes Many believe this was influenced by Beccaria’s work

Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781)

Religious Toleration Tied in with humanitarianism was the belief in

religious toleration They wanted to bring an end to religious warfare and

the persecution of heretics Many of the Enlightenment thinkers were against

the religious institutions and dogmas of the time However, only a small few considered themselves

atheists There were some who considered themselves

agnostics Most of them considered themselves religious

Deism Common belief amongst the philosophes God was like a “divine clockmaker” Do not believe God intervenes in the everyday life of

mankind

Religious Toleration Religious toleration was mainly limited to Christianity

Some who believed in toleration of non-Christians as well Gotthold Lessing (1729–1781)

In his play Nathan the Wise (1779), Jews were treated sympathetically

He did not believe there was one true religion but instead believed the three great monotheistic religions are three versions of the same truth

Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786) He was a rabbi who took up the question of Jewish

identity In his On the Religious Authority of Judaism (1783), he

defended Jewish communities against anti-Semitic policies of the time

Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Economic Reforms The philosophes also addressed economic policy The shape of the state was changing

A rise in the financial demands of states and their rising empires

How could a government make the most of its resources? French physiocrats

Saw an inherent natural order that properly governed society

Spoke out against mercantilism True wealth came from land and agricultural production They called for a simplified tax system Laissez-faire - Wealth and goods should circulate without

government interference

Economic Reforms Adam Smith (1723–1790)

Pushed the concept of laissez-faire economics was Scottish economist who took in the ideas of the

physiocrats Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the

Wealth of Nations (1776) Restrictions associated with mercantilism (e.g.

high taxes on imported goods) did not create real economic well-being

Individuals should chose their own interests without competition from state-chartered monopolies or legal restraints

No state regulation of the economy; let business regulate itself

Abbé Raynal (1711-1796)

Empire and the Enlightenment Many philosophes studied the effects of the

European empires New civilizations were looked upon as symbols of

natural humanity and simplicity Examined effects of slavery

Abbé Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal (1711-1796) A French writer and former Jesuit priest

Philosophical History . . . of Europeans in the Two Indies (1770) A history of colonization Customs and civilization of indigenous peoples Natural history Exploration and commerce

Abbé Raynal (1711-1796) Raynal believed that these “savages” actually

enjoyed a better life than most Europeans He argued that colonization can lead to greater

happiness Colonization had the benefit of bringing industry and

trade This brought improvement and progress

So what went wrong in the New World? He condemned the tactics used in the New World Took away the “natural liberties” of the native

populations As they had unlimited power, they were arrogant, cruel,

and despotic Did not have checks and balances

Slavery and the Enlightenment

Slavery and the Enlightenment Slavery

Atlantic slave trade hit its peak (over 6 million slaves) Slavery defied natural law and natural freedom Almost all of the philosophes condemned slavery, but

only in a metaphorical sense Most were hesitant to quickly condemn the Atlantic

slave trade Few philosophes advocated the total abolition of

slavery Voltaire noted the hypocrisy of his peers

He asked if they would look differently on slavery if it had been Europeans in chains rather than Africans

But he still saw Africans as being an “inferior” race

Slavery and the Enlightenment Montesquieu believed that slavery debased

both the slave and master But he believed that economies have their own

needs and labor systems He believed slave labor did help balance out the

need for economies of the colonies Diderot clearly spoke out against slavery

It defied natural law and natural freedom Slavery was a violation of self-government

Anti-slavery movements did begin to grow but slowly Many believed that slavery kills the person’s

natural desire for liberty Therefore, they are not ready for freedom

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Radical Enlightenment There were also radical philosophes Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

He did believe in humanitarianism and the creation of a just society

Focused on making mankind good Theory of Natural Man

Praised the virtues of natural man Natural man does not act morally “Savage man” does not understand complex

concepts such as “justice” or “evil”

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Society as a necessary evil

Society was necessary for people to develop their moral nature and capacity to reason

Society also corrupted by pitting individuals against each other

Called for reforms in political society and education The Social Contract (1762)

“Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. One man thinks himself the master of others, but remains more of a slave than they."

In humanity’s natural state, all men are equal Society brings about inequality with its division of

labor and private property Man becomes more competitive and yet more

dependant on other men

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Popular Sovereignty

Was against different branches of government and monarchy

He did not believe in representative democracy but rather direct democracy

This would transformed a nation Citizens would form a “body politic” People would be willing to give up certain rights out

of mutual obligation rather than coercive laws “General Will”

The population would be united together by the “general will”

Common interests would outweigh individual ones Popular sovereignty will do what is good for the

people in general

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Émile (1762)

Story of a boy educated about virtue and moral autonomy in the “school of nature”

Children should not be forced to reason early in life Books should not be used until adolescence The aim was moral autonomy and good citizenship But this education was only to be for men Women useful as mothers and wives only

Julie, ou la nouvelle Heloise (1761) Story about a young woman who falls in love with one

man but follows her father’s orders to marry another It illustrates the domestic and maternal virtues of

women It was popular to both the middle class and the

aristocracy

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

British writer, philosopher, and feminist Many of her ideas were similar to other philosophes

of the time She also had been Rousseau’s sharpest critic

A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) She illustrated numerous Republican ideas Spoke against inequality and artificial distinctions of

rank, birth, or wealth Society ought to seek “the perfection of our nature

and capability of happiness” Women had the same innate capacity for reason and

self-government as men Virtue the same thing for men and women Relations between the sexes ought to be based on

equality

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Wollstonecraft also spoke about issues with

the family Marriage laws were unequal and allowed the

husband to be “despotic” over his wife Women have been taught to be dependent and

seductive in order to win husbands Education needs to promote liberty and self-

reliance She did see a natural division of labor

between men and women A woman’s main job was mothering and educating

her children