what is comprehension? - wou homepagebrownbr/classes/sped_625_f_15/4_infrmal_asmt... · what is...

Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness

Alphabetic Principle

Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What is Comprehension?

Comprehension is...

the essence of readingactive and intentional thinking in which the meaning is contructed through interactions between the test and the reader (Durkin, 1973, see

).References

(Anderson & Pearson, 1984, see ).

The content of meaning is influenced by the text by the contribution of the reader's prior knowledge

and

References

the complex cognitive process involving the intentional interaction between reader and text to extract meaning.Definition:

Links:

What is comprehension?What does the research say about comprehension?Why is comprehension important?What should I know about comprehension?How do I teach comprehension?When should I teach comprehension?How should I sequence comprehension skills?What should I look for in programs and materials?What skills should I expect students to demonstrate at specific grade levels?How do I know if students are learning enough?What effective, research-based programs can I use?

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Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What Does the Research Say About Comprehension?

Research Findings

Readers taught cognitive strategies make significant gains on measure of reading comprehension

National Reading Panel (2000; see )References

Question:

Does text comprehension instruction improve reading achievement?

Answer:

Yes, but there have been relatively few studies conducted with children in grades K, 1, and 2. The NRP concluded that the instruction of cognitive strategies improves reading comprehension in readers with a range of abilities.

The National Reading Panel recommends:

Question answeringComprehension monitoringCooperative learningGraphic/semantic organizers/story mapsQuestion generationSummarization

Causes of Reading Comprehension Failure

Kame'enui & Simmons, 1990 (See )References

Inadequate instructionInsufficient exposure and practiceDeficient word recognition skillsDeficient memory capacity and functioningSignificant language deficienciesInadequate comprehension monitoring and self-evaluationUnfamiliarity with text features and task demandsUndeveloped attentional strategiesInadequate cognitive development and reading experiences


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Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Why is Comprehension Important?

Research on Reading Comprehension tells us that...

Readers who comprehend well are also good decoders Teach decoding and word recognition strategies

Time spent reading is highly correlated with comprehensionProvide for lots of in-class reading, outside of class reading, independent readingEncourage kids to read more, read widely - develop a passion for reading

Links:


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Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What Should I Know About Comprehension?

Factors that Impact Reading Comprehension

Reader Based Factors Text Based Factors

Phonemic AwarenessAlphabetic UnderstandingFluency with the CodeVocabulary knowledgePrior knowledgeEngagement and interest

Narrative v. ExpositoryGenre considerationsQuality of textDensity and difficulty of concepts

Comprehension Strategies for Proficient Readers

Consist of...

an awareness and understanding of one's own cognitive processesrecognition of when one doesn't understandcoordination and shifting the use of strategies as needed

Links:


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

General Framework for Teaching Reading Comprehension

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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Teaching Comprehension Before Reading

Setting Comprehension Objectives

Refer to instructional priorities on grade-level curricular maps:Examples:

Accurately answer literal and inferential questions about(See )

Stuart LittleReferences

Identify the main character and setting in Stuart Little

Before Reading

Set comprehension objectivesPreteach difficult to read wordsPreview text and prime background knowledgeChunk text into manageable segments

During Reading

Identify text structure elementsAnswer literal, inferential, and evaluative questionsRetell stories or main ideas of informational text

After Reading


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Strategic IntegrationJudicious ReviewFormal and Informal Assessment

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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Preteach difficult to read words

Identify words that will be barriers to students' independent reading.Use familiar procedures to teach or review difficult-to-decode words:

Sounding OutStructural Analysis

Story Words

Ping-pong

Stuart

Irregular Words

weight

sofas

whole

meant

Multisyllabic Words

radiator

perspiration

by E. B. White (1973, see )Stuart Little References

Before Reading


During Reading




After Reading


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Previewing Text and Priming Background Knowledge

Teach students to preview the text and predict what the text is going to be about before reading a passage.After previewing, teach students to think about what they already know and what they'd like to learn about the story or topic.

Use Conspicuous Strategies

Teacher actions should model how we preview a story or informational textusing a "think aloud" procedure.

Look at the title, look at the pictures or diagrams, survey headings.Example:

Teacher actions should model how to predict what the story or informational text is going to be about

"I think this story is going to be about a mouse named Stuart Little and his life."Example:

Ogle (1986, see )References

Before Reading

Set comprehension objectives

Ogle (1986, see )References



Preteach difficult to read wordsPreview text and prime background knowledgeChunk text into manageable segments

During Reading


After Reading


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Previewing Text and Priming Background Knowledge

KWL Procedure (Ogle, 1986, see )References

Text: The Birds of Iceland

Mediated Scaffolding

Begin with passages that are read aloud by the teacher accompaniedby pictures to help students preview the passage. Once children are reading independently, use passages with picturesclosely related to the content and progress to passages that have fewer pictures. Once students learn to preview and predict, use passages with content that is familiar to students and progress to more complex and unfamiliar


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Chunking the Text into Manageable Segments

It is important to determine how to divide the passage into manageablesegments before reading. Considerations in chunking the text include:

Appropriate stopping points for asking questionsSpecific vocabulary that might need to be reviewedAppropriate points for identifying text structure elementsOpportunities to summarixe the main ideas in the passage

Before Reading


During Reading


After Reading


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Teaching Comprehension During Reading

Identifying Text Structure Elements

Text Structures

Narrative Expository

Tell stories that usually follow a familiar story structure.Usually include the following story elements:

CharactersSettingProblemsSolutionsTheme

Informational booksContain structures that can differ from one text to another and within a single passage (e.g., compare-contrast, description).Help students understand content area textbooks.

An Example of Narrative Text Structure

In August, Henry and Henry's big dog Mudge always went camping.They went with Henry's parents.

Henry's mother had been a Camp Fire Girl, so she knew all about camping. She knew how to set up a tent. She knew how to build a campfire. She knew how to cook camp food.

by Cynthia Rylant (1998, see )

Henry and Mudge and the Starry NightReferences

how to build a campfire. She

how to cook food.

by )

the Starry NightReferences


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Before Reading


During Reading


After Reading


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Preview text and prime background knowledgeChunk text into manageable segments

Answer literal, inferential, and evaluative questionsRetell stories or main ideas of informational text

Formal and Informal Assessment



Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Identifying Text Structure Elements

An Example of Expository or Informational Text

Common Types of Expository or Informational Texts

DescriptiveSequenceCause/EffectProblem/SolutionCompare/ContrastEnumerative

Narrative and Expository Texts

Listening to and reading both types of texts helps students:

Comprehend a variety of written materials.Build and extend background knowledge about a variety of topics.Develop vocabulary.Make connections to real life experiences.Learn how diferent texts are organized and written.Distinguish between different genre.


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Phonemic Awareness


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How to Teach Text Structure: Design Considerations

Conspicuous Strategies

Teacher actions should model how to identify a text structure element in a story or informational text.

After reading the first two paragraphs of the teacher says: "They are telling me about a baby that looks like a mouse. His name is Stuart. That's also the title of this book. I think Stuart is themain character."

Example: Stuart Little,

Teacher actions should also model how to periodically pause duringreading and summarize the known text structure elements.

"I know that Stuart has a mom, a dad, and a brother George, and they live near a park in New York City. So, I know the characters and the setting in this story."

Example:

Mediated Scaffolding

Teach each text structure element thoroughly before integrating them with previously learned elements.Teach simple text structures (beginning, middle, end) in kindergarten.Progress to more complex text structures (main character, setting, problem, solution) in first through third grade.Once students demonstrate understanding of narrative text structure, introduce simple expository text structures.Use text structure maps and think sheets to assist student in mapping the critical elements of narrative and expository texts.

Story Maps

First Grade

Second and Third Grade


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Phonemic Awareness


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Phonemic Awareness


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Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative Question Answering

questions have responses that are directly stated in the text.Literal questions have responses that are indirectly stated,

induced, or require other information.Inferential

questions require the reader to formulate a response based on their opinion.Evaluative

Literal, Inferential, or Evaluative?

Puppies are very small when theyare born. They cannot see until they are about two weeks old. During this time, they stay very close to their mothers.

What are puppies like when they are born?Are puppies born blind?Why do they stay close to their mothers?Would you like to have a puppy?

Teaching Literal Question Answering

Teaching Inferential Question Answering

Teaching Evaluative Question Answering

Before Reading


During Reading



Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Teaching Comprehension After Reading

Strategic Integration: Teaching Text Structure

Once students learn to accurately identify a text structure element, integrate it with previously learned elements.Integrate text structure elements into new stories and expository texts.Use text structure in developing literal, inferential, and evaluative comprehension questions.

Strategic Integration: Teaching Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative Question Answering

Once students can consistently respond to literal questions, include simple inferential questions.Increase the complexity of inferential questions gradually as students demonstrate success.Integrate evaluative questions throughout story reading and independent passage reading.Integrate literal, inferential, and evaluative questions with questions about text structure.

Strategic Integration: Teaching Retelling

Once students learn to retell paragraphs, provide opportunities for retelling chapters and complete stories orally and in writing. Once students learn to summarize the main ideas in expository texts, provide opportunities to summarize in other contexts, such as reading directions, content area textbooks, mathematics problems, and school news.

Before Reading


During Reading



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Phonemic Awareness


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Judicious Review: Teaching Text Structure

Provide a range of activities that will require students to use the text structure elements they have learned, including oral and writtensummaries of stories. After reading stories with similar themes, have students compare elements of their text structures.Teach students to use text structure maps in planning their writing assignments.

Judicious Review: Teaching Literal, Inferential, and Evaluative Question Answering

Once students learn to respond to all three question types, include all three in any passage reading activities.

Encourage students to ask each other different question types during literature discussion and partner reading.

As you move to new passages, students may need to be reminded of what sources they need to use to answer the question (passage, their own knowledge, experiences, opinions).

Judicious Review: Teaching Retelling

Regular opportunities to retell parts of stories and expository texts should be planned as part of reading instruction. During group and partner reading, students should be encouraged to summarize major events in stories and main ideas in expository texts.

Before Reading


During Reading


After Reading



Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension


Monitoring Students' Progress

have discussions and conversations about texts that include open-ended, more complex questions.Observe students as they read and respond.Have students retell stories and monitor for accuracy and completeness of responses.

Before Reading


During Reading


After Reading


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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

Critical Features of Effective Comprehension Instruction

Visit our pages for a review of Comprehension. BIG IDEA: Comprehension

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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What are the types of Comprehension instruction?

Types of Comprehension Instruction that Have Evidence of Improving Comprehension

Comprehension monitoringCooperative learningMultiple strategiesMental imagery / mnemonicsGraphic organizersSummarizationSemantic organizers including:

story mapsquestion answeringquestion generation

Visit our pages for a review of Comprehension. BIG IDEA: Comprehension

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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

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Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

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Phonemic Awareness


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Comprehension



Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

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Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What Should I Look for in Programs and Materials?

Do materials and program...

1. teach comprehension strategies ?directly and explicitly2. incorporate multiple strategies?3. use strategies in a variety of ?contexts and contents4. teach the strategy in text students can "work with" (simplify the task)?5. teach students to become strategic (when to use the strategy, why to

use it, how to use it)?6. provide enough practice and examples to learn and apply the strategy?

Materials and programs should...

Explicitly teach listening and reading comprehension strategies.Provide a range of examples for initial teaching and practice.Provide independent practice activities that parallel requirements ofinstruction. Begin with pictures and simple sentence to teach comprehension before moving to paragraphs and longer text passages.Use text passages in which the main idea or comprehension unit is explicitly stated, clear, and in which the ideas follow a logical order.Use familiar vocabulary and passages at appropriate readability levels for the learners.Use familiar topics during intial learning.Use familiar, simple, syntactic structures and sentence types.Use both narrative and expository texts.Progress to more complex structures in which the main ideas are not explicit and passages are longer.Insert questions at strategic intervals to reduce memory load for learners.Teach skill or strategy with the aid of carefully designed examples and practice. Continue skill or strategy instruction across several instructional sessions to illustrate the applicability and utility of the skill or strategy. Connect previusly taught skills and strategies with new content and texts.Cumulatively build repertoire of skills and strategies that are introduced, applied, and integrated with appropriate texts and for authentic purposes over the course of the year.


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A Consumer's Guide to Evaluating a Core Reading Program Grades K - 3: A Critical Elements Analysis

Click to download.HERE

Links:


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Big Ideas

Phonemic Awareness


Fluency with Text

Vocabulary

Comprehension

What Effective, Research-based Programs Can I Use?

No one program will be sufficient for the full range of learners. You will need a supplemental program that can support the learners who do not benefit from your core program of instruction. We hope that these programs will work for the majority of students, but when they don't, enhancement programs will be needed.

A core curriculum is one piece of a reading program. There are many other pieces that have to be carefully synchronized. You can get the very best program, but if it is not implemented faithfully, on a daily basis, and adequate time is not allocated to teaching the program (for example, if the school does not have reading instruction on Fridays you lose 20% on your instructional time), you will not see the kinds of results that will allow children to reach end-of-year benchmarks. Think about programs in the context of 540 days - the time you have in school from Kindergarten through Second Grade. Any day you take away from the 540 days is a lost opportunity. You need to make a school-wide commitment to teach the program every day.

Making Program Decisions

Base educational decisions on evidence, not ideology (Learning First Alliance, 1998)Promote adoption of programs based on what works. If there is little evidence about a particular program, rely on the evidence regarding the approach to instruction.

Relying on Evidence

The American Federation of Teachers in their publication, (see ), identified a small number of "promising reading

programs."

Building on the Best, Learning From What Works References

AFT identified programs that when properly implemented show promise for raising student achievement significantly.

AFT's List of Core Comprehensive Programs for K-2

Open Court Collection for Young Scholars (see )ReferencesSuccess for All (see )ReferencesReading Mastery (see )References

A School's Continuum of Programs and Materials

Core: Programs and materials designed to enable 80% or more of students to reach benchmark. Acceleration: Programs and materials designed to increase students' learning essential skills (sometimes referred to as remedial programs). Reinforcement/Supplemental: Programs and materials designed to address specific skill areas such as phonemic awareness or reading fluency.

Recommended Programs:

1. Open Court: Grade 1 (Adams, Bereiter, Hirshberg, Anderson, & Bernier, 1995, see)References

2. Reading Mastery I (Engelmann & Brunner, 1995, see )References3. Read Well (Sprick, Howard, & Fidanque, 1998, see )References


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***PLEASE NOTE:

This is not intended to be a comprehensive list of available phonemic awareness programs. There are newly published programs that have not been reviewed by the authors of this website. The fact that they are not included in this list is in no way a reflection of their adequacy. As the authors review additional programs, this list will be modified. This list is comprised of programs that the authors recommend based on their review.

all

Models of Reading Program Implementation

KINDERGARTEN

ACore Programs

BSpecialized Programs

CTime/Grouping Conditions

Systematic, synthetic, phonics-based programsReading MasterySuccess for AllOpen CourtOther Basal Reading Programs

Ladders to LiteracyPhonological Awareness TrainingProject Optimize (K)Road to the CodePhonemic Awarenes in Young Children

30-45 minutes small group teacher directed instructionSupplement of 15-30 minutes prioritizedreading instructionSmall groups (3-5 students)Highly trained and skilled teachersPreteach or reteach difficult skills

GRADE 1

ACore Programs



Open CourtReading MasterySuccess for AllOther BasalReading Programs

Read WellReading MasteryOther code based programsPreteach/reteach specific priority skillsPeer-AssistedLearning StrategiesRead Naturally

30-45 minutes small group teacher directed instructionSupplement of 20-30 minutes prioritizedreading instructionSmall groups (4-5 students)Highly trained and skilledteachers

GRADE 2-3

ACore Programs



Open CourtReading MasterySuccess for AllOther BasalReading Programs

Read NaturallyReading MasteryRepeated Reading Fluency BuildingPeer-Assisted Learning Strategies

30-45 minutes small group teacher directed instructionSupplement of 30 minutes prioritized reading instructionSmall groups (4-5 students) or individualized tutoringHighly trained teachers with high quality implementation

A Consumer's Guide to Evaluating a Core Reading Program Grades K - 3: A Critical Elements Analysis

Click to download.HERE


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References

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Adams, M. J., Foorman, B. R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). The elusive phoneme: Why phonemic awareness is so important and how to help children develop it. (1-2), 18-29.American Educator, 22

Anderson, R. C. (1992). Research foundations for wide reading. Papercommissioned by the World Bank. Urbana, IL: Center for the Study of Reading.

Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basicprocesses in reading. In P.D. Pearson, R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal(Eds.), (pp. 255-291). New York: Longman.Handbook of Reading Research

American Federation of Teachers (1999)..

Washington DC. In http://www.aft.org/edissues/whatworks/index.htm.

Building on the best, learning from what works: seven promising reading and English language arts programs

Baker, Simmons, & Kame'enui. (1997). Vocabulary acquisition: Research bases. In Simmons, D. C. & Kame'enui, E. J. (Eds.),

. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

What reading researchtells us about children with diverse learning needs: Bases and basics

Bay Area Reading Task Force (1997). . San Francisco, CA: University School Support

for Educational Reform.

A reading-writing-language source book for the primary grades

Blachman, B. A., Ball, E. W., Black, R. & Tangel, D. M. (2000). . Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Road to the Code

Carnine, D. W., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E. J. (1997).. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

Direct instruction reading (3rd ed.)

(1996). No. 7. U.S.; District of Columbia.Conditions of Education

Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). What reading does for the mind. , 8-15.American Educator, 22(1-2)

Durkin, D. (1978-79). What classroom observations reveal about readingcomprehension instruction. , 481-533.Reading Research Quarterly, 14

Ehri, L. (1991). Development of the ability to read words. In R. Barr, M. L.

05/10/2003 1:27 PMEducational Results in Reading

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Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), (pp. 383-417). New York: Longman.

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Elley, W. B. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories. , 174-187.

Reading Research Quarterly, 14(2)

Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E. (1998). . Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc.

Reading Mastery I: Distar Reading

Engelmann, S., & Bruner, E. (1995). New York, NY: SRA / McGraw-Hill Co.

Reading Mastery II.

Felton, R. H., & Pepper, P. P. (1995). Early identification and intervention of phonological deficits in kindergarten and early elementary children at risk for reading disability. , 405-414.School Psychology Review, 24

Felton, Rebecca H., Wood, Frank B. (1992). A Reading Level Match Study of Nonword Reading Skills in Poor Readers with Varying IQ.

, 5, 318-326.Journal of Learning

Disabilities, 25

Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1997). . Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.The case for early reading intervention

Foorman, Barbara R., And Others. (1996). Relation of Phonological and Orthographic Processing to Early Reading: Comparing Two Approaches to Regression-Based Reading-Level-Match Designs.

, 4, 639-652.Journal of Educational

Psychology, 88

Francis, David J., And Others. (1996). Developmental Lag versus Deficit Models of Reading Disability: A Longitudinal, Individual Growth Curves Analysis. , 1, 3-17.Journal of Educational Psychology, 88

Fuchs D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Simmons, D. C. (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making classrooms more responsive to diversity. (1), 174-206.American Educational Research Journal, 34

Hart, B., & Risley, R. T. (1995). . Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children

Hasbrouck (1998). Reading fluency: Principles for instruction and progressmonitoring. . Austin, TX: Texas Center for Reading and Language Arts, University of Texas at Austin.

Professional Development Guide

Hasbrouck, J. E., Ihnot, C., & Rogers, G. H. (1999). "Read Naturally": A strategy to increase oral reading fluency.

(1), 27-18.Reading Research and Instruction,

39

Haskell, D. W., Foorman, B. R., & Swank, P. R. (1992). Effects of three orthographic/phonological units on first-grade reading.

, 40-49.Remedial and Special

Education, 13

Ho, Minfong. (1996). . New York: Orchard Books. Hush! A Thai Lullaby

Hodgkinson, H. L. (1992). . Institute for A demographic look at tomorrow



Educational Leadership. U. S.: District of Columbia.

Juel, C. (1991). Beginning reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), (pp. 759-788). New York: Longman.

Handbook of reading research

Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. , 437-447.

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Kame'enui, E. J., Carnine, D. W., Dixon, R. C., Simmons, D. C., & Coyne, M. D. (2002).

. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Effective teaching strategies that accommodate diverse learners

(2nd ed.)

Kame'enui, E. J. & Simmons, D. C. (1990). Columbus, OH:

Merrill Publishing Company.

Designing instructional strategies: The prevention of academic learning problems.

Kame'enui, E. J., & Simmons, D. C. (2000). Planning and evaluation tool for effective schoolwide reading programs. Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement.

Kame'enui, E. J., Simmons, D. C., Baker, S., Chard, D. J., Dickson, S. V.,Gunn, B., Smith, S. B., Sprick, M., & Lin, S. J. (1997). Effective strategies for teaching beginning reading. In E. J. Kame'enui, & D. W. Carnine (Eds.),

Columbus, OH: Merrill.Effective Teaching Strategies That Accommodate Diverse Learners.

Kaminski, R. A., & Good, R. H., III (1998). Assessing early literacy skills in a problem-solving model: Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills. In M. R. Shinn (Eds.), . New York: Guildford.

Advanced applications of curriculum-based measurement

Kaminski, R. A., & Good, R. H., III (1996). Toward a technology for assessingbasic early literacy skills. (2), 215-227.School Psychology Review, 25

Laberge, D., & Samuels, S. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. , 293-323.Cognitive Psychology, 6

Laimon, D. E. (1994). The effects of a home-based and center-based intervention on at-risk preschool children's early literacy skills. Doctoral dissertation. University of Oregon.

Learning First Alliance (1998). Every child reading: An action plan of the Learning First Alliance. , 52-63.American Educator, 1-2

. Santa Rosa, CA: SRA / McGraw-Hill.Learning without limits: Open Court Collections for Young Scholarsinformation kit

Liberman, I. Y., & Liberman, A. M. (1990). Whole language vs. code emphasis: Underlying assumptions and their implications for reading instruction. , 51-76.Annals of Dyslexia, 40

Lyon, G. R. (1995). Toward a definition of dyslexia. , 3-27.

Annals of Dyslexia, 45



Marston, D., & Deno, S. L. (1987). . Minneapolis, MN: Children's

Educational Services, Inc.

Tests of oral reading fluency: Measures for sreening and progress monitoring in reading

McPike, E. (Ed.) (1995). Learning to read: Schooling's first mission.(2), 3-51.American Educator, 19

Moats, L. C. (1999). . Washington, D. C.:

American Federation of Teachers.

Teaching reading is rocket science: What expert teachers of reading should know and be able to do

Nagy, W., & Anderson, R. C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? , 304-330.Reading Research Quarterly, 19

National Assessment of Educational Progress (1999).. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington,

D. C.: U. S.

Report card for the nation and the states

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction [on-line]. Available: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm.

National Research Council (1998). . Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Preventing reading difficulties in young children

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