Week 11

Sociology of Developing Societies

Caroline Wright

Lecture OutlineDefining DevelopmentLabelling & Mapping DevelopmentTheorizing Development

Development as ModernizationDevelopment as DependencyDevelopment as CapabilityDevelopment as Sustainability

Development AidStructural AdjustmentDevelopment TargetsWhat is Post-Development?

Defining DevelopmentWHAT IS IT?Economic growth,

modernization, industrialization

Increase in human capability

A myth

INDICATORSIncreased GNP;

increased GNP/capita

Increased life expectancy, health, opportunities, well-being, security

Growing inequalities, unsustainability, non-viable national economies, conflict, war

‘When I think of the word “development” I think of more industries, more cities, pollution, uprootedness, organized violence ‘(Ashis Nandy , author, in Seabrook, 1993, p. 225).

‘The North in our South is trying to catch up with the West; and the notion of development which they promote plays havoc with our people and our natural resources’ (Swami Agniveshi, President of Bonded Labour Liberation Front, India, ibid, p. 245).

‘Development was originally a Western promise to the South, designed to counter the danger of socialism’ (Anisur Rahman, cited in ibid, p. 8).

Development is a western economic ideology, the modern civilizing mission’, the new colonialism (ibid, pp. 8-9, p. 18)

‘Development is no more than a myth which helps underdeveloped countries to conceal their misfortune and developed countries to soothe their conscience’ (de Rivero, 2010, p. 2).

‘Change cannot be considered as development unless it is equitable’ (McGillivray, 2008, p. 38 – core reading).

De Rivero, Oswaldo (2010) The Myth of Development: Non-viable economies and the crisis of civilization, London, New York: Zed Press

Seabrook, Jeremy (1993) Victims of Development: Resistance and Alternatives, London, New York: Verso

Labelling and Mapping Development

Cold–war Geopolitics

First World: Developed, Capitalist, industrial countries aligned with US

Second World: Former communist-socialist industrial countries alignedwith Soviet Union

Third World: All other non-aligned countries

[Fourth World: Widely unknown FirstNations, indigenous peoples livingwithin or across countries]

Problems

HierarchicalCrude relationship to development

Developed-UndevelopedDeveloped –DevelopingMore Economically Developed/

Less Economically DevelopedNorth-SouthMinority World-Majority

World

Alternative Labels of Development

HDI Mapping of Development

World Map of Human Development Index (HDI) 2002

Source: http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/worldmap_HDI2004.htm

Saudi Arabia Uruguay Russia Costa Rica Vietnam MoroccoGDP per capita 15,711 9,962 10,845 9,481 3,071 4,555(US$)

Adult Literacy Rate (%) 82.9 96.8 99.4 94.9 90.3 52.3Female Literacy Rate (%) 76.3 97.3 99.2 95.1 86.9 39.6

Life expectancy (years) 72.2 75.9 65 78.5 73.7 70.4Under 5 mortality 26 15 18 12 19 40

Political Rights/ 7/6 1/1 6/5 1/1 7/5 5/4Civil Liberties*

HDI 0.812 0.852 0.082 0.846 0.733 0.646 * 1 is most free, 7 is least free Sources: Human Development Report 2007/8; Freedom House 2008

Economic and Social Development: Selected Indicators and Countries

Some Statistics1.2 billion people across the world are hungry, 70% female 67 million children are not enrolled in primary education ,

43% in sub-Saharan AfricaWomen only hold 18% of seats in parliament worldwide Every year, over half a million women and girls die in

pregnancy or childbirth, 99% in developing countriesTwo thirds of those living with HIV are in sub-Saharan

Africa, most of them women 1.2 billion people lack access to basic sanitation 828 million people live in urban slums globallySources: http://www.devinfo.org/di-facts.html

http://www.undp.org/mdg/basics.shtml

Development as Modernization Walt Whitman Rostow: The Stages of Economic Growth

(1960)Development = modernization: shift from immature, poor,

traditional, agrarian society to mature, wealthy, advanced, modern, industrial nation

Driver = Capitalism and western values, technology, politics Goal = stimulate economic growthLinear model of universal stages ‘Catch-up’ modelTraditional and Modern economies quite separateLack of development = intrinsic to poor societiesDevelopment is economic, defined by economists

Here’s a representation of linear development: [Paste link into browser]

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gn_G2awugwI&feature=related

‘All societies, in their economic dimensions, [lie] within one of five categories: the traditional society, the pre-conditions for take-off, the take-off, the drive to maturity, and the age of high mass consumption’ (Rostow, 1960, p. 4).

Critique of Development as Modernization:A historical, no analysis of colonialismEmpirically untrue that undevelopment is original state of

traditional societies ‘Modern’ and ‘traditional’ economies not separateDoesn’t value indigenous knowledgeOrientalist – reproduces idea of western superiority Investment and aid don’t necessarily produce economic growthSees state as solution

 

Development as Dependency Andre Gunder Frank: The Development of Underdevelopment 1966); Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America (1967) Development = reducing dependency on global markets, self-

determination Cause of undevelopment = capitalism and colonialism West has de-industrialized colonies, eg IndiaEconomies integrated not separateDeveloping societies falling behindFree flow of capital = inequalitiesWest has developed on back of developing

worldWest = problem not solution

Critique of dependency theory:

 Economic inequalities are within the west as well as between the west and developing societies

How can the rise of the NICs in east and southeast Asia be accounted for?

ISI hasn’t resulted in economic growthConstructs developing societies as victims,

underestimates resistance

Development as CapabilityAmartya Sen: Development as Freedom (1999)Development = expansion of human capabilities;

what individuals are able to do and beEg. capability of long and health life, good

educational opportunities, meaningful job, physical safety, democratic debate

Threshold of capabilities below which a dignified human life is not possible

People come first in a capabilities approachPoverty is not lack of income but of capabilityDevelopment is multi-dimensional

Critique of Capability Theory:

One person’s choice of capability may limit another’s

How should different capabilities be weighted and valued?

It’s hard to measure capabilities

How easy is it to see if people have a capability if they choose not to use it?

Can you rely on people to report their level of capability?

 

Development as SustainabilitySustainability = ‘Meeting the needs of today’s

population without harming the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland Commission)

Need to respect that earth’s resources are finiteValue people rather than thingsIntermediate technology, think local, think smallCommunal ownership, value indigenous knowledgeConserve more and pollute lessTake responsibility for addressing climate changeMinority world must consume less, and consume

differently

Critique of Development as Sustainability:Human ingenuity will exploit new resources as

others run out, and find ways to get more for lessPoverty and malnutrition don’t result from

shortages of resources, but poor distribution systems and/or inability to pay for goods

Development AidFinancial flows from donor governments to developing country governments and

multilateral institutions, administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing countries as the main objective.

History of Aid – Marshall Plan; Cold War; MDGs

UN Target: 0.7% of GNP (met in 2010 by Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden)

$128.7 billion in 2010 (0.32% of minority world GNP)

Tied Aid

Aid Conditionality

Dependency

 

Structural AdjustmentConditions attached to finance from IMF/World

BankNeo-liberal: shrink state; promote marketAim: balance external debts and trade deficitsOutcome: Increased poverty and inequality

Development Targets

The Millennium Development GoalsAdopted in 2000 to be achieved by 2015

What is Post-Development?Arturo Escobar Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World (1995)

Development is not neutral but a discourse based on Eurocentrism

This discourse and its practices have been forced on rest of world

Indigenous cultures and values have been destroyed

Sustainability of natural environments has been threatened

Poor now see themselves as inadequate, to blame

Development was always unjust, never worked, and has now clearly failed

Critique: Is it really new?Haven’t some things improved? Can development never bring good change?

ConclusionsDevelopment is a contested conceptDifferent understandings of development = different indicatorsThe way we label development mattersHDI is a composite measure of social as well as economic

developmentLow levels of development are concentrated in SSA GNP/capita is not a reliable predictor of developmentDevelopment has been theorized as modernization;

dependency; capability and sustainabilityDevelopment aid is 0.3% of minority world GNP; effectiveness

is contestedMost of the MDGs will be missed in 2015Post-development = development as a eurocentric idea

Watch this clip ‘What is Development?’: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pRmjoF5nv6s