what is in side a television broadcasting station

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

DEPARTMENT OF ECE, AJCE

CHAPTER 1

JAIHIND TV PROFILE

Launched on 17 August 2007, by Congress President and UPA Chairperson, Mrs.

Sonia Gandhi with the mission to meet the aspirations of the family and the nation, JAIHIND

has consistently remained in the forefront with innovative programming, setting new industry

benchmarks in news coverage and entertainment packaging. JAIHIND TV is a channel with a

multi-genre infotainment package for the whole family.

JAIHIND TV, Malayalam Channel own and operated by M/s Bharat Broadcasting

Network Ltd. is a subsidiary of Jaihind Communications Pvt. Ltd, a company registered

under the Companies Act 1956 with an initial investment of Rs. 33 crores. Jaihind TV’s

registered office is located at Karimpanal Arcade, East Fort, Thiruvananthapuram.

Sri. Ramesh Chennithala, President of Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee is the

President of JAIHIND TV. Sri. M.M.Hassan, former Minister and Senior Leader of the

Indian National Congress Party, is the Managing Director. He is a Popular Figure

championing various public interest causes. Bharat Broadcasting Network Ltd is chaired by

Sri. Kunjukutty Aniyankunju, a prominent NRI businessman based at UAE. Sri. Vijayan

Thomas, a renowned NRI business personal, is the chairman of Jaihind Communications Pvt

Ltd. Board of Directors and investors are eminent NRI and Resident business personalities.

JAIHIND TV is headed by Sri.K.P.MOHANAN, a veteran journalist well-versed both in

Print and Electronic Media with professional experience spanning four decades. A Permanent

Fellow of the USA based World Press Institute, Mr. Mohanan is the winner of the Rajiv

Gandhi Award for excellence in Journalism.

With the declared motto “For The Family, For The Nation” JAIHIND TV is

committed to quality entertainment packages with Social and Ethical Binding and News and

Current Affairs programmes with development objectives. The programmes of the Channel



focus on upholding Democracy, Secularism and Nationalism. The Channel brings together

some of the finest talents in the industry and transcends stereo typical television.

Jaihind TV aims to be the voice of the global Malayalees and to address the issues of

global relevance. A well-experienced and highly qualified professional team and state-of-the-

art studio with multi-dimensional shoot facilities at the Kinfra Film and Video Park that has

fully-digital production and post-production facilities and a Live News room in Trivandrum

with static and dynamic connectivity to all the Districts in Kerala as well as to Delhi,

Mumbai, Chennai and Dubai, make Jaihind TV a media organization with competitive edge.



CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

2.1 WHAT'S IN A TELEVISION STATION?

"Photography is going to marry Miss Wireless, and heaven help everybody when they get

married. Life will be very complicated."

-- Marcus Adams, Society photographer, in the Observer, 1925.

2.2 THE TV STATION AS A WHOLE

The basic television system consists of equipment and people to operate this gear so

that we can produce TV programs. The stuff you'll find in a television station consists of (and

this list is not exhaustive!):

one or more television cameras

lighting, to see what we're shooting

one or more audio consoles, along with sound control equipment, to manipulate the

sounds we generate with microphones, audio recorders and players, and other devices

one or more videotape recorders, or other video recording technologies, in any of a

number of formats

one or more video switchers, to select video sources, perform basic transitions

between those sources, and to create special effects

EFP (electronic field production) shooting and production equipment, and storage

facilities

perhaps a post-production editing facility, to assemble videotaped segments

together

some special effects: either visual or aural; electronic, optical or mechanical



2.3 THE STUDIO INFRASTRUCTURE

Whether or not you work in a traditional studio or a new "studioless" environment,

the same principles apply. You'll still need:

an intercom system (with headset stations for floor directors)

floor monitors (video and audio)

electrical outlets for both regular AC and lighting equipment

In addition, your control room or control centre will have:

various program and preview monitors

program audio speakers

time of day clock

video switcher

an audio control room, with audio console, cart machines, turntable and/or CD

player, reel to reel and/or cassette and/or DAT recorder and/or other digital recording

and playback technology, and auxiliary audio enhancement equipment



Fig.3

3.1 STUDIO

A television studio is an installation in which a

for the recording of live television

post-production. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from,

few amendments for the special requirements of television production. A professional

television studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and

practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via

among these workplaces.

PROGRAM

STUDIO

NEWS

STUDIO

PROGRAM


CHAPTER 3

WORK FLOW

Fig.3 1: WORKING OF CHANNEL

is an installation in which a video productions take place, either

live television to video tape, or for the acquisition of raw

. The design of a studio is similar to, and derived from, movie studios


n studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and

practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via intercom, and personnel will be divided

PROGRAM

PCR

take place, either

, or for the acquisition of raw footage for

movie studios, with a


n studio generally has several rooms, which are kept separate for noise and

, and personnel will be divided



The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place.

A studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:

decoration and/or sets

professional video camera (sometimes one, usually several) on pedestals

microphones

stage lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.

several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room (PCR)

a small public address system for communication

a glass window between PCR and studio floor for direct visual contact is usually

desired, but not always possible

Various types of cameras Used

SONY PD 170

SONY DSR 400

SONY D 50

SONY D 55

3.2 PRODUCTION-CONTROL ROOM

The production control room (PCR) is the place in a television studio in which the

composition of the outgoing program takes place.

Facilities in a PCR include:

A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and

other video sources.

A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the multiple-camera setup and

other various sources to be recorded or seen on air and, in many cases, in any video

monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used in Europe, while the

term 'video switcher' is usually used in North America.

A professional audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects

devices.



A character generator (CG), which creates the majority of the names and full

on-screen graphics that are insert

television screen

Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision

mixers, the DVE is integrated into the

A still store, or still frame, device

name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images

The technical director's station, with

control units (CCU) or remote control panels for the CCUs.

VTRs for recording.

Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and

A signal generator to lock all of the video equipment to a common reference that

requires color burst.

VISION MIXER (VIDEO

SWICHER) FOR-A 700


(CG), which creates the majority of the names and full

that are inserted into the program lower third portion of the

, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision

mixers, the DVE is integrated into the vision.

A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the

name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images

's station, with waveform monitors, vectorscopes and the

(CCU) or remote control panels for the CCUs.

equipment for communication with talent and television crew

to lock all of the video equipment to a common reference that

Fig.3.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PCR

(CG), which creates the majority of the names and full digital

portion of the

, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision

for storage of graphics or other images. While the

and the camera

television crew

to lock all of the video equipment to a common reference that



3.2.1 Recording format

Jaihind TV is using the latest Sony MPEG IMX recording format for programme

production to deliver the excellent picture quality to the viewers.

DV CAM Specifications

Tape: ME (Metal Evaporate)

Track Pitch: 15 micrometers

Track Width: 15 micrometers (10 micrometers on some early gear)

Tape Speed: 28.215 mm/sec

Record Time: Standard: 184 mins, MiniDV: 40 mins.

Compression: Intra-frame, 5:1 DVC-format DCT, 25 Mbps video data rate

Resolution & Sampling: 720x576, 4:2:0 (PAL), 720x480, 4:1:1 (NTSC)

Audio: 2 ch @ 48 kHz, 16 bits; 4 ch @ 32 kHz, 12 bits

Will accept 2 ch @ 44.1 kHz, 16 bits via 1394 I/O; locked.

3.2.2 IMX Format Specifications

IMX, also known as Beta cam IMX or MPEG IMX, records SD NTSC and PAL video

using high-quality MPEG-2 compression.

a) Storage Medium

One of the features of the IMX format is that it is not restricted to a single media type.

IMX can be recorded on XDCAM, a Sony optical disc format, as well as the IMX tape

format.

IMX VTRs bridge the gap between conventional tape decks and modern computer editing

systems with the following features:

Playback of older video formats such as Beta cam SP, Beta SX, and Digital Beta cam.

These formats can be converted and output to MPEG IMX in real time.



Note: Not all IMX VTRs support playback and recording of all Beta cam formats.

IMX digital video file transfer via networking interfaces such as Ethernet and TCP/IP

protocols

b) Video Standard

IMX supports both SD NTSC and SD PAL.

c) Aspect Ratio

NTSC and PAL IMX both have an aspect ratio of 4:3.

d) Frame Dimensions, Number of Lines, and Resolution

IMX can store video at two possible resolutions: NTSC (525) and PAL (625). The

numbers refer to the number of analog lines of the corresponding video formats. However,

many of these analog lines are not used to store picture information. In Final Cut Pro, the

following frame dimensions are used:

NTSC IMX: 720 pixels per line, 486 lines

PAL IMX: 720 pixels per line, 576 lines

In both formats, standard definition rectangular pixels are used, just as with DV, DVD,

Digital Beta cam, and other SD digital video formats.

e) Frame Rate

IMX supports NTSC and PAL frame rates of 29.97 fps and 25 fps, respectively.

f) Scanning Method

IMX supports interlaced recording.

g) Color Recording Method

IMX records a 4:2:2 Y′CBCR (component) digital video signal. Each sample (pixel)

has a resolution of 8 bits.



h) Data Rate and Video Compression

IMX uses I-frame-only MPEG-2 compression. IMX is a restricted version of MPEG-2

4:2:2 Profile @ ML. The official SMPTE designation is D10, as specified in SMPTE

standard 356M.

Three compression ratios are supported:

30 Mbps: 5.6:1 compression



i) Audio

IMX supports two audio channel configurations:

Four audio channels, sampled at 48 kHz with 24 bits per sample

Eight audio channels, sampled at 48 kHz with 16 bits per sample

j) Time code

IMX supports 30 and 25 fps time code.



3.3 EDIT SUITE

Fig.3.3: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF EDIT SUITE

Non-linear editing is a video editing method which enables direct access to any

frame in a digital video clip, without needing to play or scrub/shuttle through adjacent

footage to reach it, as was necessary with historical

most natural approach when all assets are available as files on

recordings on reels or tapes, while linear editing is related to the need to sequentially view a

film or read a tape to edit it. On the other hand, the NLE method is similar in concept to the

"cut and paste" technique used in film editing. However, with the appropriation of non

editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. Non

non-destructive editing methods began to appear with the introduction of

technology. It can also be viewed as the

why it is called desktop video editing in the consumer space.

Video and audio data are first captured to

storage devices. The data are either


Fig.3.3: SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF EDIT SUITE

linear editing is a video editing method which enables direct access to any

, without needing to play or scrub/shuttle through adjacent

to reach it, as was necessary with historical video tape linear editing systems. It is the

most natural approach when all assets are available as files on hard disks



" technique used in film editing. However, with the appropriation of non

editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. Non

methods began to appear with the introduction of

technology. It can also be viewed as the audio/video equivalent of word processing

editing in the consumer space.

Video and audio data are first captured to hard disks, video server, or other d

storage devices. The data are either direct to disk recording or are imported from another

linear editing is a video editing method which enables direct access to any video

, without needing to play or scrub/shuttle through adjacent

linear editing systems. It is the

s rather than



" technique used in film editing. However, with the appropriation of non-linear

editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. Non-linear,

methods began to appear with the introduction of digital video

word processing, which is

, or other digital

or are imported from another



source. Once imported, the source material can be edited on a computer using application

software, any of a wide range of video editing software.

In non-linear editing, the original source files are not lost or modified during editing.

Professional editing software records the decisions of the editor in an edit decision list (EDL)

which can be interchanged with other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the

original source files can exist without needing to store many different copies, allowing for

very flexible editing. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply

by editing the edit decision list (without having to have the actual film data duplicated).

Generation loss is also controlled, due to not having to repeatedly re-encode the data when

different effects are applied.

Compared to the linear method of tape-to-tape editing, non-linear editing offers the

flexibility of film editing, with random access and easy project organization. With the edit

decision lists, the editor can work on low-resolution copies of the video. This makes it

possible to edit both standard-definition broadcast quality and high definition broadcast

quality very quickly on normal PCs which do not have the power to do the full processing of

the huge full-quality high-resolution data in real-time.

A multimedia computer for non-linear editing of video will usually have a video

capture card to capture analog video and/or a FireWire connection to capture digital video

from a DV camera, with its video editing software. Various editing tasks can then be

performed on the imported video before it is exported to another medium, or MPEG encoded

for transfer to a DVD.

One of the best things about nonlinear editing, is that the edit is instant - no splicing

and waiting for the glue to set as in film, and no having to actually play back the entire shot

for its full duration, as in videotape. One mouse click and it's done - on to the next edit. And

the shot can, of course, be placed absolutely anywhere, even in between two frames of a

previously laid down shot. Another advantage of nonlinear editing can be its reduced VTR

cost. Obviously, to have instant access to all of your shots, you have to shoot on a non-digital

camera and VTR, and dump the raw footage into the nonlinear editing system, but this



requires only one VTR (you can use the same videotape machine to record the finished

product afterwards, too.) The down side of this, however, is the cost of hard drive storage -

many editors only dub over the final takes of their shoot, not all of their raw footage.

3.4 COMPILER

Fig.3.4: LAYOUT OF COMPILER

3.4.1 Production

This part will discuss the production of the video. But not the creation of the

video from the movie maker, this part is when the video is already done. One of the most

important parts will be the election of the medium to watch. Depending if the video is

designed and transmitted for watching through internet, or if is for television. Leaning on one

or the other the requirements will be different. First of all the size of the file is noticed that

the quality of the image in a DVD or in a TV program is better than the quality in an online

transmission on a PC; higher quality implies higher size and vice versa. As a result of, is

interesting for a online view smaller file extension for a clearer transmission.



A DVD movie can be like 4 Gigabytes hence would not be worth to view by internet

streaming connection. The term streaming means that it is a direct current (without

interruption). The user can listen or watch when they want. This technology allows to be

stored in a buffer that will be listened or viewed. Streaming makes possible to play music or

watch videos without having to be downloaded first. Up-to-date there are new software

applications to listen music via streaming. Spotify uses those technology to listen music only

needing an internet connection and the program. Besides, bigger size needs more bandwidth

to be transferred by the network. Additionally, the file must be smaller than the original.

Thenceforth a more powerful compression is needed for reduce the size of the movie file.

For more compression, more energy and so on more power consumption. Furthermore

there are new algorithms with the aim of reduce the size relevantly but also with a minor

quality decrease. Consequently is important to select the correct devices related with the type

of transmission and which compression is required. Before making the choice is useful to

know which compression tools are craved. Here is a list of the different video coding

standards:

MPEG-1: Is the standard of audio and video compression. Provides video at a

resolution of 350x240 at 30 frames per second. This produces video quality slightly

below the quality of conventional VCR videos. Includes audio compression format of

Layer 3 (MP3).

MPEG-2: audio and video standard for broadcast of television quality. Offers

resolutions of 720x480 and 1280x720 at 60fps with audio CD quality. Matches most

of TV standards even HDTV. The principal use is for DVDs, satellite TV services and

digital TV signals by cable. An MPEG-2 compression is able to reduce a 2 hour video

to few gigabytes. While decompressing a MPEG-2 data stream no needs much

computer resources, the encoding to MPEG-2 requires more energy to the process.

MPEG-3: Designed for HDTV but was replaced for MPEG-2

MPEG-4: Standard algorithm for graphics and video compression based on MPEG-1,

MPEG-2 and Apple QuickTime technology. The MPEG-4 files are smaller than JPEG

or QuickTime, therefore are designed to transfer video and images through a narrow



bandwidth and sustain different mixtures of video with text, graphics and 2D or 3D

animation layers.

MPEG – 7: Formally called Multimedia Content Description Interface, supplies a set

of tools for multimedia content. Performed to be generic and not aimed at a specific

use.

MPEG – 21: Allow a Rights Expression Language (REL) and Rights Data

Dictionary. Describes a standard that defines the description of the content and the

processes to access, search, store and protect the copyright of the content discordant

with other MPEG standards that define compression coding methods. The above-

mentioned are the standard but each one has specific parts depending on the use.

Among these types the most important contemporaneously are:

MPEG-2

MPEG-4 → particularly the part number 10 which without increasing the complexity

of design and the file size, implements good video quality at lower bit rates than the

previous. Technologically called MPEG-4 H.264 / AVC.

3.4.2 MPEG-2 (H.262)

MPEG-2 is a standard for “the generic coding of moving pictures and associated

audio information”. Is an extension of the MPEG-1 international standard for digital

compression of audio and video signals created to broadcast formats at higher bit rates than

MPEG-1. Initially developed to serve the transmission of compressed television programs via

broadcast, cablecast, and satellite, and subsequently adopted for DVD production and for

some online delivery systems, defines a combination of lossy video compression and lossy

audio data compression using the actual methods of storage, like DVDs or Blu-Ray, without a

bandwidth restriction.

The main characteristics are:

New prediction modes of fields and frames for interlaced scanning.

Improved quantification.

The MPEG-2 transport stream permits the multiplexing of multiple programs.



New intra-code variable length frame (VLC). Is a code in which the number of bits

used in a frame depends on the probability of it. More frame probability implies more

bits intended by frame. Strong support for increased errors.

Uses the discrete cosine transform algorithm and motion compensation techniques to

compression.

Provides for multichannel surround sound coding. MPEG-2 contains different

standard parts to suit to the different needs. Also annexes various levels and profiles.

3.4.3 MPEG-2 FUNDAMENTALS

Nowadays, a TV camera can generate 25 pictures per second, i.e., a frame rate

of 25Hz. But in order to convert it to a digital television is necessary to digitalize the pictures

in order to be processed with a computer. An image is divided in two different signals:

luminance (Y) and chrominance (UV). Each image has one luma number and two

chrominance components. The television colour signal Red-Green-Blue (RGB) can be

represented with luma and chrominance numbers. Chrominance bandwidth can be reduced

relative to the luminance signal without an influence on the picture quality.

An image can also be defined with a special notation (4:2:2, 4:2:0). These are types of

chroma sub-sampling relevant to the compression of an image, storing more luminance

details than colour details. The first number refers to the luminance part of the signal, the

second refers to the chroma. In 4:2:2 luminance is sampled 4 times while the chroma values

are sampled twice at the same rate. Being a fact that the human eye is more sensitive to

brightness than colour, chroma is sampled less than luminance without any variation for the

human perception. Those signals are also partitioned in Macro blocks which are the basic unit

within an image. A macro block is formed by more blocks of pixels. Depending on the codec,

the block will be bigger or smaller. Normally the size is a multiple of 4. MPEG-2 coding

creates data flow by three different frames: intra-coded frames (I frames), predictive-coded

frames (P-frames), and bidirectional-predictive-coded frames (B-frames) called “GOP

structure” (Group of Pictures structure).

I-frame: Coded pictures without reference to others. Is compressed directly from a

original frame.



P-frame: Uses the previous I-frame or P-frame for motion compensation. Each block

can be predicted or intra-coded.

B-frame: Uses the previous I or P picture and offers the highest compression. One

block in a B-picture can be predicted or intra-coded in a forward, backward or

bidirectional way. A typical GOP structure could be: B1 B2 I3 B4 B5 P6 B7 B8 P9

B10 B11 P12. I-frames codes spatial redundancy while B-frames and P-frames code

temporal redundancy. MPEG-2 also provides interlaced scanning which is a method

of checking an image. The aim is to increase the bandwidth and to erase the

flickering showing the double quantity of images per second with a half frame rate.

For example, produce 50 images per second with a frame rate of 25Hz. The scan

divides a video frame in two fields, separating the horizontal lines in odd lines and

even lines. It enhances motion perception to the viewer. Depending on the number of

lines and the frame rate, are divided in:

PAL / SECAM: 25 frames per second, 625 lines per frame. Used in Europe.

NTSC: 30 frames per second, 525 lines per frame. Used in North America.

MPEG-2 encoding is organized into profiles. A profile is a "defined subset of the syntax

of the specification". Each profile defines a range of settings for different encoder options. As

most of settings are not available and useful in all profiles, these are designated to suit with

the consumer requirements. A computer will need a hardware specific for the use, the same

with a television or a mobile phone, but it would be capable to rate it in a particular profile.

Then an encoder is needed to finish the compression.

3.4.4 MPEG-2 COMPRESSION BASICS

Spatial Redundancy:

A technical compression type which consists of grouping the pixels with

similar properties to minimize the duplication of data in each frame.

Involves an analysis of a picture to select and suppress the redundant information, for

instance, removing the frequencies that the human cannot percept. To achieve this is

employed a mathematical tool: Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT).



Intra Frame DCT Coding:

The Discrete cosine Transform (DCT) is a based transform with Fourier

Discrete Transform with many applications to the science and the engineering but basically is

applied on image compression algorithms. DCT is employed to decrease the special

redundancy of the signals. This function has a good energy compaction property and so on

accumulates most of the information in few transformed coefficients. In consideration of this

the signal is converted to an new domain, in which only a little number of coefficients

contain most of the information meanwhile the rest has got unappreciated values. In the new

domain, the signal will have a much more compact representation, and may be represented

mainly by a few transform coefficients. It is independent of the data. The algorithm is the

same, regardless of the data applied in the algorithm. It is a lossless compression technique

(negligible loss).The DCT is capable to interpret the coefficients in a frequency point. As a

result of that, it can take a maximum of compression capacity profit. The result of applying

DCT is an 8x8 array composed of distinct values divided in frequencies:

• Low frequency implies more sensitive elements for the human eye.

• High frequency means less cognizant components.

Temporal Redundancy:

Temporal compression is achieved having a view in a succession of pictures.

Situation: An object moves across a picture without movement. The picture has all the

information required until the movement and is not necessary to encode again the picture

until the alteration. Thereafter, is not necessary to encode again all the picture but only the

part that contains the movement owing that the rest of the scene is not affected by the moving

object because is the same scene as the initial picture. The notation with is determined how

much movement is contained between two successive pictures is motion compensated

prediction.

As a result of isolating a picture is not a good fact because probably an image is going

to be constructed from the prediction from a previous picture or maybe the picture may be

useful to create the next picture.



Motion Compensated Prediction:

Identify the displacement of a given macro block in the current frame respect

from the position it had in the frame of reference.

The steps are:

Search for the same macro blocks of the frame to be encoded in the frame of

reference.

If there is not the same macro block then the corresponding motion vector is

encoded.

The more similar macro block (INTER) is chosen and later on is necessary to

encode the motion vector.

If there is no similar block (INTRA) these block is encoded using only the spatial

redundancy.

3.4.5 H.264 / MPEG-4 AVC

H.264 or MPEG-4 part 10 defines a high-quality video codec compression developed

by the Video Coding Expert Group (VCEG) and the Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG)

in order to create a standard capable of providing good quality image, but using rates actually

lower than in previous video standards such as MPEG-2 and without increasing the

complexity of its design, since otherwise it would be impractical and expensive to implement.

A goal that is proposed by its creators was to increase its scope, i.e., allow the standard to be

used in a wide variety of networks and video, both high and low resolution, DVD storage,

etc.

In December 2001 came the Joint Video Team (JVT) consisting of experts from

VCEG and MPEG, and developed this standard to be finalized in 2003. The ISO / IEC

(International Organization for Standardization / International Electro technical Commission)

and ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standardization

Sector) joined this project. The first is responsible of the rules for standards by focusing on

manufacturing and the second focuses mainly on tariff issues. The latter planned to adopt the



standard under the name of ITU-T H.264 and ISO / IEC wanted to name him MPEG-4 Part

10 Advanced Video Codec (AVC), hence the name of the standard. To set the first code they

firstly based on looking at the previous standard algorithms and techniques to modify or if

not create new ones:

DCT structure in conjunction with the motion compensation of previous versions was

efficient enough so there was no need to make fundamental changes in its structure.

Scalable Video Coding: An important advance because it allows each user, regardless

of the limitations of the device, receives the best possible quality, issuing only a single

signal. This is possible because it provides a compressed stream of video and users

can take only what you need to get a better video quality according to their technical

limitations of receipt.

The MPEG-4 has more complex algorithms and better benefits giving a special quality

improvement, which provides a higher compression rate than MPEG-2 for an equivalent

quality.

3.4.6 MAIN ADVANTAGES

For the MPEG-4 AVC the main important features are:

1. Provides almost DVD quality video, but uses lower bit rate so that it's feasible to transmit

digitized video streams in LAN, and also in WAN, where bandwidth is more critical, and

hard to guarantee.

2. Dramatically advances audio and video compression, enabling the distribution of content

and services from low bandwidths to high-definition quality across broadcast, broadband,

wireless and packaged media.

3. Provides a standardized framework for many other forms of media — including text,

pictures, animation, 2D and 3D objects – which can be presented in interactive and

personalized media experiences.

4. Supports the diversity of the future content market.

5. Offers a variety of so-called “profiles,” tool sets from the toolbox, useful for specific

applications, like in audio-video coding, simple visual or advanced simple visual profile, so

users need only implement the profiles that support the functionality required.



6. Uses DCT algorithm mixed with motion compensation. It clearly shows that MPEG4

wants to be a content-based representation standard independent of any specific coding

technology, bit rate, scene type of content, etc. This means it shows at the same time why and

how MPEG4 is different from previous moving pictures coding standards.

8. Low latency

The most important and relevant are:

1. Reduces the amount of storage needed

2. Increases the amount of time video can be stored

3. Reduces the network bandwidth used by the surveillance system

3.4.7 MAIN NEW FEATURES

Type of image : Adding two extra frames, apart from I, P, B, the SP (Switching P)

and SI (Switching I) which allows passing from one video to another applying the

temporal or spatial prediction with the possibility to reconstruct accurate values of

the sample even when using different reference images than the images used in the

prediction process.

Motion compensation: With variant sizes of the sub-blocks; 16x8, 8x16, 8x8 pixels,

8x8 size can be partitioned into 8x4, 4x8 or 4x4 groups of pixels to providing a

greater accuracy into the estimation.

Transform: a DCT modification with a 4x4 pixel size, using Integer coefficients to

avoid the approximation errors, getting a better precision to calculate the coefficients.

Entropy coding: Coding method without errors that consist in treating all the

transform array in a zigzag way, bringing together groups with similar frequencies,

insert coded zeros and applying VLC coding for the rest. This technique reduces in a

5% the file size but with a larger coding and decoding time.

3.5. MASTER-CONTROL ROOM

The Master control room is the place where the on-air signal is controlled. It may

include controls to playout television programs and television commercials, switch local or



television network feeds, record

may be in an adjacent equipment rack room. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where

a particular local program is originated. If the program is broadcast live, the signal goes from

the PCR to MCR and then out to the transmitter

Fig 3.5: SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF

When all of the diverse elements of the daily program schedule come together, there

has to be some way of integrating them in a connected way. That is where master control

comes in. Master control operators (and their equipment) are

and look of the station.

3.5.1 ROUTER / SWITCHER


feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the transmitter, or these items

jacent equipment rack room. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where


the PCR to MCR and then out to the transmitter.

Fig 3.5: SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF MCR / PLAYOUT



comes in. Master control operators (and their equipment) are responsible for the final output

/ SWITCHER

feeds and monitor the transmitter, or these items

jacent equipment rack room. The term "studio" usually refers to a place where




responsible for the final output



The heart of the master control operator's equipment is the switcher, which can

perform cuts, dissolves, and keys like a production switcher. There is one significant

difference, however - the MCR switcher also has the ability to take audio from any of the

sources selected, and is therefore called an "audio follow" switcher.

In addition to the regular program audio, the MCR operator (or "MCO") has the

capability of sending out additional tape or digital cartridge material either to replace the

existing audio completely, or mixing it over the continuing source. This is done by lowering

the level of the program material and is called "voice over" mode.

The keyer on the switcher is generally used to superimpose station identification

information over program material, or other statistics such as the time of day. With all of this

information and technical detail to watch over, master control operations are beginning to

computerize. The computer remembers and activates transitions sequences. It also cues, rolls,

and stops film projectors and VTRs, and calls up any number of slides from the still store

system. The development of MCR switchers is going in two directions. One can have the

switcher perform more and more visual tricks. Or, it can be kept simple enough so that the

operator does not have to climb all over it to reach everything, or take a computer course to use

it.

3.5.2 CHARACTER GENERATOR

The character generator looks and works like a typewriter, except that it writes letters

and numbers on the video screen instead of paper. This titling device has all but replaced the

conventional studio card titles, and has become an important production tool. The more

sophisticated character generators can produce letters of various sizes and fonts, and simple

graphic displays such as curves and rectangles (blocks). In addition, backgrounds can be

colorized.

To prepare the titles or graphs, you enter the needed information on a computer-

like keyboard. You can then either integrate the information directly into the program in

progress, or store it for later use. Whether it is stored on computer disk or in the generator's



RAM (random access memory), the screen full of information is keyed to a specific address

(electronic page number) for easy and fast recall.

Most character generators have two output channels - a preview and a program. The

preview channel is for composing titles. The program channel is for actually integrating the

titles with the major program material. The preview channel has a cursor that shows you where

on the screen the word or sentence will appear. By moving the cursor into various positions,

you can centre the information, or move it anywhere on the screen. Various controls allow you

to make certain words flash, to roll the whole copy up and down the screen, or to make it crawl

sideways. More sophisticated generators can move words and graphics on and off the screen at

any angle, and at any of several speeds.

3.5.3 LOGO / GRAPHICS GENERERATOR

With graphics generators, you can draw images on the screen. These units are also

called video art, or paint box, systems. You draw onto an electronic tablet with a stylus. An

output monitor immediately reflects your artistic efforts, and another one offers a series of

design options (such as colour, thickness of line, styles of letters, or special effects) to improve

your art work.

Newer systems will allow you to change the size and position of a graphic so that it

can be used full-frame, in an over the shoulder position (for news), or in lower third for

information display. More than one original image can be integrated into a new full-frame

composite (a montage). Character generators are now often part of the software package.

Retouching (softening edges, adding or removing highlights, matching colors, blending objects

into their backgrounds) is commonly available.

Most graphics generators work in real time; your drawing is immediately

displayed on the screen. Less sophisticated paint boxes take a moment before they display the

effects. Also, better quality units have built-in circuits and software to prevent aliasing (jagged

details on diagonal lines). These are hidden by slightly blurring the edges of the lines.

Personal computers are now often used to generate television graphics, both as



character generators and paint boxes. Some amazing effects can be produced with these easy to

use graphics machines. These systems have an internal board to convert the regular PC output

to standard NTSC scanning.

3.5.4 ENCODER

An Encoder is a device used to convert analog video signals into digital video

signals. Most of them compress the information so it can be stored or transmitted in the

minimum space possible. To achieve this it takes advantage of video sequences that have

spatial or temporal redundancy. Therefore, eliminating redundant information obtains that

encode information more optimal. The spatial redundancy is erased with DCT coefficient

coding. To delete temporal redundancy is used the motion compensation prediction, with

motion estimation between successive blocks.

The operation method is:

Signals are separated luma (Y) and chroma (C).

Find the error of estimation to make the DCT.

The coefficients are quantified and entropy coded (VLC).

Coefficients are multiplexed and passed to the buffer. The buffer controls the quality

of signal.

Check that the outflow bit stream of the buffer is not variable, because the signal is

thought to be transmitted on a channel with a steady speed.

The quantified image is reconstructed for future reference for prediction and motion

estimation.

The DCT algorithm and the block quantification can cause visible discontinuities at

the edges of the blocks leading to the known “Blocking effect”, because the DCT omits

the 0 in the matrix, so may produce imperfections. As a result of, new standard video

coding like H.264/MPEG-4 ACV, includes filter algorithms able to decrease that effect.

3.5.5 MODULATOR

In the televisions systems, signals can be carried between a limited frequency

spectrum, which a concrete lower and upper frequencies. A modulator is a device charged of



transporting a signal inside another signal to be transmitted. Is able to transform a low-

frequency signal into a other frequency signal. As a result of, the frequency can be controlled

and the problem above can be solved. Mainly, the aim of modulate a signal consist in

changing a parameter of the wave according to the variations of the modulation signal

(information to be transmitted).

3.5.6 UPCONVERTER

Upconverter is used to convert television signals to VHF or UHF signals

regardless of whether it is a digital signal or analog signal. The device detects the kind of

incoming signal and being based on if is a digital or analog, creates the suitable reference

signal.

3.6 DIGITAL VIDEO BROADCASTING (DVB)

Once the video is encoded in the desired format (MPEG-2 or MPEG-4/H.264

AVC) will have to be put on the network to be distributed and transported to the end user. In

this field there are different connections, satellite, terrestrial, cable, etc., Depending on the

type of means used in transport will have different formats, but mostly in terrestrial digital

television will use a terrestrial connection (DVB-T) mixed with a connection via satellite

(DVB-S). These connections will be in charge of transmitting the digital signal to the end

user, but first this signal must be created, since only at this point you have video signals,

audio and data. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) has become the synonym for digital

television and for data broadcasting world-wide. DVB services have recently been introduced

in Europe, in North- and South America, in Asia, Africa and Australia.DVB is the technology

that makes possible the broadcasting of “data containers“ in which all kinds of digital data up

to a data rate of 38 Mbit/s can be transmitted at bit-error rates in the order of 10-11.

3.6.1 BASEBAND PROCESSING

The transmission techniques developed by DVB are transparent with respect

to the kind of data to be delivered to the customer. They are capable of making available bit

streams at (typically) 38 Mbit/s within one satellite or cable channel or at 24 Mbit/s within



one terrestrial channel. On the other hand a digital video signal created in today’s TV studios

comprises of 166 Mbit/s and thus cannot possibly be carried via the existing media. Data rate

reduction or “source coding“therefore is a must for digital television.

One of the fundamental decisions which were taken during the early days of DVB

was the selection of MPEG-2 for the source coding of audio and video and for the creation of

programme elementary streams, transport streams etc. - the so-called systems level. Three

international standards describe MPEG-2 systems, video and audio. Using MPEG-2 a video

signal can be compressed to a datarate of for example 5 Mbit/s and still can be decompressed

in the receiver to deliver a picture quality close to what analogue television offers today.

The term “channel coding” is used to describe the algorithms used for adaptation of

the source signal to the transmission medium. In the world of DVB it includes the FEC

(Forward Error Correction) and the modulation as well as all kinds of format conversion and

filtering.

3.7 DVB-S2: THE SECOND GENERATION STANDARD FOR

SATELLITE BROAD-BAND SERVICES

DVB-S2 is a digital satellite transmission system developed by the DVB

Project. It makes use of the latest modulation and coding techniques to deliver performance

that approaches the theoretical limit for such systems. Satellite transmission was the first area

addressed by the DVB Project in 1993 and DVB standards form the basis of most satellite

DTV services around the world today, and therefore of most digital TV in general. DVB-S2

will not replace DVB-S in the short or even the medium term, but makes possible the

delivery of services that could never have been delivered using DVB-S. The original DVB-S

system, on which DVB-S2 is based, specifies the use of QPSK modulation along with various

tools for channel coding and error correction. Further additions were made with the

emergence of DVB-DSNG (Digital Satellite News Gathering), for example allowing the use

of 8PSK and 16QAM modulation. DVB-S2 benefits from more recent developments and has

the following key technical characteristics:



There are four modulation modes available, with QPSK and 8PSK intended

for broadcast applications in non-linear satellite transponders driven close to saturation.

16APSK and 32APSK, requiring a higher level of C/N, are mainly targeted at professional

applications such as news gathering and interactive services.

DVB-S2 uses a very powerful Forward Error Correction scheme (FEC), a key factor

in allowing the achievement of excellent performance in the presence of high levels of noise

and interference. The FEC system is based on concatenation of BCH (Bose-Chaudhuri-

Hcquengham) with LDPC (Low Density Parity Check) inner coding.

Adaptive Coding and Modulation (ACM) allows the transmission parameters to be

changed on a frame by frame basis depending on the particular conditions of the delivery

path for each individual user. It is mainly targeted to unicasting interactive services and to

point-to-point professional applications.

DVB-S2 offers optional backwards compatible modes that use hierarchical

modulation to allow legacy DVB-S receivers to continue to operate, whilst providing

additional capacity and services to newer receivers.

3.8 TELEPORT

A telecommunications port—or, more commonly, teleport—is a satellite

ground station with multiple parabolic antennas (i.e., an antenna farm) that functions as a hub

connecting a satellite or geocentric orbital network with a terrestrial telecommunications

network. Teleports may provide various broadcasting services among other

telecommunications functions, such as uploading computer programs or issuing commands

over an uplink to a satellite.

3.9 ENPS

ENPS (Electronic News Production System) is a software application developed by

the Associated Press's Broadcast Technology division for producing, editing, timing,

organizing and running news broadcasts. The system is scalable and flexible enough



to handle anything from the local news at a small-market station to large

organizations spanning remote bureaus in multiple countries.

The basic organization of each news broadcast is called a "rundown" (US) or "running

order" (UK). The run-down is a grid listing scripts, video, audio, character generator

data, teleprompter control, director notations, camera operator cues, and timing

estimates for each section of the broadcast.

ENPS integrates scripts, wire feeds, device control, and production information in a

server/client environment. On the server side, ENPS runs an identical backup server

(called a "buddy") at all times as a fail-safe. If the primary server fails, all users are

redirected to the buddy server until such time as the primary comes back on-line. All

document changes are queued on the buddy and copied back to the primary

automatically when it returns to production. Note that this is not a mirror server as the

changed data is copied to the buddy, but there is no direct replication inherent within

the intercommunications between the servers, so if the data is corrupted due to

hardware failure on one server, this corruption will not be replicated to the "buddy".

Device control can be managed either through a serial interface, or the MOS (Media

Object Server) protocol. MOS functionality is included in the base ENPS license, but

may be an extra add-on for the device that needs to interface with ENPS. MOS items

such as video or audio clips can be added directly to scripts, and then used by third

party software and devices during the broadcast.

ENPS was originally developed by the Associated Press for use at the BBC in the

United Kingdom as a replacement for the text mode system BASYS (which

developed into Avid iNEWS), and the Corporation has the largest installation of the

system with over 12,000 users in 300 different locations.



CHAPTER 4

DIGITAL SATELLITE NEWS GATHERING (DSNG)

4.1 DSNG

Fig.4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DSNG

Satellite offers the unique possibility to transmit images and sound from almost

anywhere on the planet. From a fully equipped uplink truck or from a light flyaway travel

case, DSNG makes it possible to bring live news and sport to millions of viewers.

MIC

ANTENNA TRACKING SYSTEM USING GPS



DSNG is all about being at the right place at the right time. This often means to travel

light in order to get there fast. But you don't need to compromise on picture or signal quality

to be there just where it is happening. You also don't need to be cut-off from your news

production facilities.

Digital satellite news gathering (DSNG) is a system that combines electronic news

gathering (ENG) with satellite news gathering (SNG). As time passed and electronic devices

become smaller, a whole DSNG system was fitted into a van. DSNG vans are now common;

they're extensively used in covering news events.

4.2 EQUIPMENT

Fig.4.2 DIGITAL SATELLITE NEWS GATHERING VAN

The DSNG van, also known as an “outside broadcast” (OB) van, is a mobile

communications systems using state-of-the-art equipment to produce and transmit news as it

happens, where it happens. A typical DSNG van is outfitted with a two-way high-power

amplifier satellite system, a production component and an energy framework. The DSNG van

also comes with a custom and powerful electrical system, as it needs to power all the

equipment it carries without the need for any external source.



There are also several additional equipments inside the van: a traveling wave tube

amplifier (TWTA) administrator system, an encoder/modulator, primary and secondary

monitors, video synthesizer/mixer and an audio mixer. External equipment includes high

definition cameras, a solid state power amplifier and a low noise block down converter.

Most DSNG manufacturers can outfit vans with the necessary equipment with ease.

Some manufacturers even offer stand-alone modular DSNG equipment systems, whereby

qualified operators can move and install equipment from one vehicle to another easily. DSNG

vans have five main working sections: the monitoring section, the audio engineering section,

the data and power storage area, the video control area and the transmission area.

4.3 TRANSMISSION MECHANICS OF OLDER SYSTEMS

With older DSNG setups, as soon as a camera captures news images, the satellite in

the OB van transmits real-time images to an uplink satellite, which in turn sends raw footage

to a geostationary network. The network produces a local copy of the received images for

editing. During this editing process, archive images from the network’s libraries are

sometimes integrated into the edited video as the network sees fit. The edited video is then

ready for play-out.

4.4 TRANSMISSION MECHANICS OF NEWER SYSTEMS

With the advent of interactive tapeless methods of DSNG, editing is done

simultaneously through a laptop-based rewriting/proofreading terminal. The van is equipped

with transmission and reception facilities, which allow rough and condensed files to be

transmitted to and received from a remote geostationary network. A prime video server

processes the files for storage and eventual broadcast. The DSNG system maximizes

bandwidth to allow faster turnover of news in real time.

A modern DSNG van is a sophisticated affair, capable of deployment practically



anywhere in the civilized world. Signals are beamed between a geostationary satellite and the

van, and between the satellite and a control room run by a broadcast station or network. In the

most advanced systems, Internet Protocol (IP) is used. Broadcast engineers are currently

working on designs for remotely controlled, robotic DSNG vehicles that can be teleoperated

in hostile environments such as battle zones, deep space missions, and undersea explorations

without endangering the lives of human operators.

4.5 WORKING OF DSNG

DSNG of Jaihind TV is communicating using NSS 12 570E. Before the

communication starts we need to synchronize the dish antenna mounted on the DSNG with

our satellite. The position of the satellite and the antenna must be in Line Of Sight (LOS).

The position of the antenna can be determined in such a way that the transmitted beacon

signal is received with its maximum power. After tracking the location of the satellite, we can

start the communication. The camera out will be taken and then it will be modulated using

QPSK. Next we will encode, and then we will get an L-band signal. This signal will be

upconverted and then amplified using a TWTA. The obtained signal is send to the feed arm

of the antenna using a rectangular waveguide. The signal from the feed arm is radiated to the

antenna dish in such a way that maximum power will be radiating in the LOS direction. This

is the basic working of a typical DSNG. One of the difficult and important operation in these

steps is the tracking of DSNG with its satellite. One thing to be noted is that the vehicle must

be always kept in a horizontal direction, for that special equipment are used. DSNG vehicles

are designed and provided by VSSC.



CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

We have undergone our industrial training in Jaihind TV at Thiruvananthapuram. We

got a great experience and exposure in the world of broadcasting. We learned the telecasting

methods for live programs, news and recorded programs. Also we got an idea about the

operation of Digital Satellite News Gathering vehicle of Jaihind TV. The transmission of the

programs to the satellite is from Noida (Telport own by EsselSyam Satcom) at Delhi up to

which programs are carried through optical fiber cable. The signals from the satellite are then

received in remote stations using commercial satellite recivers. We have got an idea about the

Production Control Room, Master Control Room, Live Room, etc.