What is the Anthropology of What is the Anthropology of Science and Technology?Science and Technology?

Downey and Dumit, Introduction Downey and Dumit, Introduction to to Cyborgs & CitadelsCyborgs & Citadels

““This volume contributes to a diverse This volume contributes to a diverse and rapidly expanding set of and rapidly expanding set of anthropological projects that are anthropological projects that are seeking new ways of locating and seeking new ways of locating and intervening in emerging sciences, intervening in emerging sciences, technologies, and medicines through technologies, and medicines through cultural perspectives and ethnographic cultural perspectives and ethnographic fieldwork.”fieldwork.”

What do we mean by “cultural What do we mean by “cultural perspectives” on science and perspectives” on science and

technology?technology?

How is “ethnographic fieldwork” of How is “ethnographic fieldwork” of science and technology done?science and technology done?

Some Challenges:Some Challenges:

Science and Technology often appears Science and Technology often appears to us to be both:to us to be both:

– ““hauntingly strange”hauntingly strange”– ““seductively familiar”seductively familiar”

““The Citadel Problem”The Citadel Problem” Citadel = small fortress or fortified part of a city which Citadel = small fortress or fortified part of a city which

protects and oversees the larger city protects and oversees the larger city

Highlights the problem of disciplinary boundaries/ Highlights the problem of disciplinary boundaries/ territoriality (‘sovereignty’).territoriality (‘sovereignty’).

Another effect of the citadel problem “is that science often Another effect of the citadel problem “is that science often appears as a culture of no culture” - as an entity appears as a culture of no culture” - as an entity independent of society. Researchers characterized as independent of society. Researchers characterized as “living in specialized technical communities whose “living in specialized technical communities whose deliberations are essentially opaque and presumably free of deliberations are essentially opaque and presumably free of cultural content.”cultural content.”

= “Diffusion Model” of knowledge in society= “Diffusion Model” of knowledge in society

Science’s Relation to Society Science’s Relation to Society in the “Diffusion Model”in the “Diffusion Model”

Science

Culture/Society

““Diffusion Model” Diffusion Model” “…“…knowledge, in the singular, is created by knowledge, in the singular, is created by

bright, well-trained people located inside the bright, well-trained people located inside the academy and then diffuses outside into the academy and then diffuses outside into the public arena through mechanisms of public arena through mechanisms of education, popularization, policy and the education, popularization, policy and the impacts of new technologies. The test of impacts of new technologies. The test of cultural significance for new knowledge occur cultural significance for new knowledge occur ‘out there’ in the public arena as it used, ‘out there’ in the public arena as it used, abused or ignored.”abused or ignored.”

Some Consequences of the Some Consequences of the “Diffusion Model”“Diffusion Model”

The outward travel of knowledge preserves the The outward travel of knowledge preserves the autonomy of creation and separates creators from autonomy of creation and separates creators from accountability for their productsaccountability for their products

Damaging effects of technology are seen as a result of Damaging effects of technology are seen as a result of abuse or ignorance of the public (non-compliant patients, abuse or ignorance of the public (non-compliant patients, politicians, business, etc.)politicians, business, etc.)

Public needs to be educated about science and Public needs to be educated about science and technologytechnology

““Diffusion Model”Diffusion Model”(From Downey and Dumit)(From Downey and Dumit)

““Claims to knowledge that fall inside a citadel can Claims to knowledge that fall inside a citadel can gain status, privilege, access to resources and gain status, privilege, access to resources and authoritative lines of descent, and the possibility authoritative lines of descent, and the possibility of becoming seated as of becoming seated as permanent factspermanent facts.” .”

““Claims that fall outside may have to struggle in a Claims that fall outside may have to struggle in a nether world of questionable legitimacy, marginal nether world of questionable legitimacy, marginal position, subsistence economy, and risk of position, subsistence economy, and risk of punishment for acts of deviance.”punishment for acts of deviance.”

Science and Technology Studies (STS) Science and Technology Studies (STS) questions the “Diffusion Model” of the questions the “Diffusion Model” of the

relationship between science and societyrelationship between science and society

STS seeks to study is the nature of STS seeks to study is the nature of the relationship between (and the relationship between (and

sometimes even challenges the sometimes even challenges the very idea of a separation between) very idea of a separation between)

science and societyscience and society

““Cyborgs” in STSCyborgs” in STS(Downey and Dumit)(Downey and Dumit)

““The cyborg concept originated in Cold War The cyborg concept originated in Cold War space research and science fiction to refer to space research and science fiction to refer to symbiotic forms of life that involve both symbiotic forms of life that involve both humans and machines.”humans and machines.”

““The image of ‘Cyborgs’ [as used in STS] is The image of ‘Cyborgs’ [as used in STS] is designed to call attention to ways in which designed to call attention to ways in which science, technology, and medicine routinely science, technology, and medicine routinely contribute to the fashioning of selves.”contribute to the fashioning of selves.”

Donna HarawayDonna Haraway“Manifesto for Cyborgs” “Manifesto for Cyborgs”

(1985)(1985) Claimed the cyborg as a feminist icon, in attempt to identify new Claimed the cyborg as a feminist icon, in attempt to identify new

ways of talking about the relationship between humans and ways of talking about the relationship between humans and technology (machines, specifically), and in attempt to open up technology (machines, specifically), and in attempt to open up discussion of different forms of analysis and activism in the blend of discussion of different forms of analysis and activism in the blend of technoscience and capitalism (the “New World Order, Inc.”) that has technoscience and capitalism (the “New World Order, Inc.”) that has created the possibilities for the construction of such beingscreated the possibilities for the construction of such beings..

Haraway is not anti-technological or anti-cyborg - she instead seeks Haraway is not anti-technological or anti-cyborg - she instead seeks to challenge the way these relationships are currently constituted, to challenge the way these relationships are currently constituted, and seeks positive future possibilities.and seeks positive future possibilities.

Some Positive Aspects of Some Positive Aspects of Cyborgs (Haraway)Cyborgs (Haraway)

Because of their inherent hybridity, cyborgs cause us Because of their inherent hybridity, cyborgs cause us to rethink relations between technology and humans, to rethink relations between technology and humans, and to refuse “easy origin stories as well as and to refuse “easy origin stories as well as discourses of purity and naturalism, insisting instead discourses of purity and naturalism, insisting instead on more complicated accounts of the production and on more complicated accounts of the production and mixing of human and nonhuman agencies.”mixing of human and nonhuman agencies.”

Might it be possible to formulate new strategies for Might it be possible to formulate new strategies for improving the conditions of humans that accepted improving the conditions of humans that accepted this mutual figurations of human and machine?this mutual figurations of human and machine?

The “Science Wars”The “Science Wars”

For next class we will be reading some For next class we will be reading some of the diffusion model defenders:of the diffusion model defenders:

– Carl SaganCarl Sagan– Alan SokalAlan Sokal

STS scholars, although concerned with issues of STS scholars, although concerned with issues of power, they tend not to be ‘luddites.’ In fact, they are power, they tend not to be ‘luddites.’ In fact, they are often highly fascinated by science and technology often highly fascinated by science and technology (like many other scientists), and they tend to see both (like many other scientists), and they tend to see both positive potentials as well as possible dangers in it.positive potentials as well as possible dangers in it.

However, unlike many (primarily physical science) However, unlike many (primarily physical science) scientists (Sagan, Sokal), they generally scientists (Sagan, Sokal), they generally do notdo not accept the premises of the relationship between accept the premises of the relationship between science and society found in the “Diffusion Model”science and society found in the “Diffusion Model”

Science’s Relation to SocietyScience’s Relation to Society

Diffusion ModelDiffusion Model Other Possible ModelsOther Possible Models

Science

Society/Culture

ScienceSociety/Culture

Society/Culture Science

Anthropology of ScienceAnthropology of Science

Fairly young/recent field. Science and Fairly young/recent field. Science and Technology studies emerged largely in Technology studies emerged largely in the 1970s and 1980s, Anthropology of the 1970s and 1980s, Anthropology of Science and Technology emerged in Science and Technology emerged in the 1990s.the 1990s.

Science StudiesScience Studies Seem to follow a global shift whereby more Seem to follow a global shift whereby more

wealthy countries have begun to move away wealthy countries have begun to move away from industrial and manufacturing-based from industrial and manufacturing-based economies to more service and information/ economies to more service and information/ knowledge based economies (1960s-1970s). knowledge based economies (1960s-1970s). Manufacturing is increasingly being moved to Manufacturing is increasingly being moved to ‘developing’ countries, as labor and capital ‘developing’ countries, as labor and capital becomes more ‘flexible’.becomes more ‘flexible’.

Many would argue that since the 1960s and Many would argue that since the 1960s and 1970s, we are increasingly participating in “a 1970s, we are increasingly participating in “a worldwide social, political, economic, cultural, worldwide social, political, economic, cultural, and intellectual transformation.”and intellectual transformation.”

Anthropologists of science are attempting to Anthropologists of science are attempting to study this transformation both at home and study this transformation both at home and abroad, trying to study what new relations abroad, trying to study what new relations and concepts are emerging out of this and concepts are emerging out of this transformation, and also asking how ‘new’ transformation, and also asking how ‘new’ (“modern”) this transformation really is.(“modern”) this transformation really is.

Many anthropologists note that despite Many anthropologists note that despite the dramatic changes both in relations the dramatic changes both in relations of labor and capital and new forms of of labor and capital and new forms of technology being currently developed, technology being currently developed, many older problems of racism, sexism, many older problems of racism, sexism, (neo)colonialism/imperialism, class (neo)colonialism/imperialism, class differences, freedom and equality still differences, freedom and equality still persist.persist.

ATS are not generally ‘anti-science’ although ATS are not generally ‘anti-science’ although they do often challenge both popular and they do often challenge both popular and

scientific conceptions of sciencescientific conceptions of science

(Downey and Dumit, Introduction):(Downey and Dumit, Introduction):“Challenging the citadel effects of science and locating “Challenging the citadel effects of science and locating scientific practices within cultural narratives need not be scientific practices within cultural narratives need not be the same as practicing a popular theory of antiscience. the same as practicing a popular theory of antiscience. The ‘antiscience’ label serves as a rhetorical political tool The ‘antiscience’ label serves as a rhetorical political tool for devaluing that which cannot be labeled ‘proscience’ for devaluing that which cannot be labeled ‘proscience’ or is otherwise not wanted. The point is not to question or is otherwise not wanted. The point is not to question science per se, but to characterize the roles of sciences, science per se, but to characterize the roles of sciences, technologies, and medicines in our lives and imagine technologies, and medicines in our lives and imagine ways in which our lives might be better.”ways in which our lives might be better.”

Some Fieldwork StrategiesSome Fieldwork Strategies

Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

““Hiring In” - training and working as a Hiring In” - training and working as a laboratory scientistlaboratory scientist

Challenges to ASTChallenges to AST Question of “native” perspective Question of “native” perspective

- anthropology itself - anthropology itself isis a science; a science;- much of what is studied involves/comes out - much of what is studied involves/comes out of of western culturewestern culture

Insider/Outsider dilemmasInsider/Outsider dilemmas

““Gee Whiz” factorGee Whiz” factor

Questions of representationQuestions of representation

““Growing Interest” in ASTGrowing Interest” in AST In part, due to increasing numbers and increasing In part, due to increasing numbers and increasing

embeddedness of AST/STS researchers over the past embeddedness of AST/STS researchers over the past generationsgenerations

In part, probably due to generational shifts and the In part, probably due to generational shifts and the increasing openness of younger scientists to allow increasing openness of younger scientists to allow researchers into their labsresearchers into their labs

In part, due to a fundamental shift in the academy itself In part, due to a fundamental shift in the academy itself (“postmodern” in the social sciences/ “chaos” and (“postmodern” in the social sciences/ “chaos” and “complexity” theory in the physical sciences)“complexity” theory in the physical sciences)

Multiple papers in this volume give a good sense of the Multiple papers in this volume give a good sense of the nature of contemporary research in this field nature of contemporary research in this field

David HessDavid Hess

““If You’re Thinking of Living in If You’re Thinking of Living in STS”STS”

Further QuestionsFurther Questions

Where does the anthropology Where does the anthropology of science come from?of science come from?

(What is its intellectual history)(What is its intellectual history)

What other fields in STS studies What other fields in STS studies does it ‘compete’ with?does it ‘compete’ with?

Anthropology of Science and Anthropology of Science and Technology is just one of many Technology is just one of many

approaches to the study of approaches to the study of Science and Technology in Science and Technology in

SocietySociety

What does ‘STS’ mean?What does ‘STS’ mean?

Science and Technology Studies?Science and Technology Studies?

Science, Technology and Society?Science, Technology and Society?

What other approaches are there to STS?What other approaches are there to STS?

Philosophy of SciencePhilosophy of Science

SSK - “Sociology of Scientific Knowledge” SSK - “Sociology of Scientific Knowledge” (sometimes referred to as the “constructivists”)(sometimes referred to as the “constructivists”)

SSK more direct intellectual connection to ATS. SSK more direct intellectual connection to ATS. Some SSK names include: Some SSK names include: Barry Barnes, David Bloor, Harry Collins, Karin Knorr-Cetina, Barry Barnes, David Bloor, Harry Collins, Karin Knorr-Cetina, Bruno Latour (?), Michael Lynch, Michael Mulkay, Andrew Bruno Latour (?), Michael Lynch, Michael Mulkay, Andrew Pickering, Trevor Pinch, Steve Woolgar, Steven YearleyPickering, Trevor Pinch, Steve Woolgar, Steven Yearley

SSK scholarsSSK scholars

Mostly MaleMostly Male

Mostly European (largely British)Mostly European (largely British)

SSK intellectual historySSK intellectual history

Comes largely out of the sociology tradition, drawing Comes largely out of the sociology tradition, drawing from Marx, Durkheim and Weber from Marx, Durkheim and Weber

Karl Mannheim, Robert MertonKarl Mannheim, Robert Merton

Ludwik Fleck’s Ludwik Fleck’s Genesis and Development of a Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact Scientific Fact (originally published in German in (originally published in German in 1935)1935)

Probably the most influential early SKS study is Probably the most influential early SKS study is Thomas Kuhn’s Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Revolutions (1970s) (1970s)

SSK intellectual historySSK intellectual history

Field begins to take off in the 1970sField begins to take off in the 1970s

Development of the “Strong Program”Development of the “Strong Program”in SKS generates enormous debate across the in SKS generates enormous debate across the sciencessciences

Next ClassNext Class

Continue talking about debate Continue talking about debate surrounding the ‘strong program’ in surrounding the ‘strong program’ in SSK, the emergence of the ATS, and SSK, the emergence of the ATS, and the “Science Wars” characterizing the the “Science Wars” characterizing the 1990s1990s

To Read for Next ClassTo Read for Next Class Introduction and the Epilogue to Alan Introduction and the Epilogue to Alan

Sokal’s book Sokal’s book Fashionable Nonsense: Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals’ Abuse of Postmodern Intellectuals’ Abuse of Science (1998)Science (1998)

Carl Sagan, “Science and Hope” from Carl Sagan, “Science and Hope” from The Demon-Haunted World: Science as The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark (1996)a Candle in the Dark (1996)

Also:Also: Search for at least three articles dealing Search for at least three articles dealing

with the relationship between technology with the relationship between technology and warfare in relation to the current war in and warfare in relation to the current war in IraqIraq

Start your journalsStart your journals

Come with a question for discussion next Come with a question for discussion next TuesdayTuesday