what we hide in words: value-based reasoning and emotive language

8/13/2019 What We Hide in Words: Value-Based Reasoning and Emotive Language

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What We Hide in Words: Value-Based Reasoning and EmotiveLanguage

FABRIZIO MAA!"O

ArgLab Instituto de Filosofia da Linguagem (IFL)

Universidade Nova de Lisboa

Edifcio I&D ! andarAvenida de "erna #$

%$'$% Lisbon

ortugal

fabriio*macagno+fcs,*unl*-t

AB#$RA$: $here are emotivel% &o'er(ul 'ords that )an modi(% our *udgment+ arouse our emotions and

in(luen)e our de)isions, $his &a&er sho's ho' the use o( emotive meaning in argumentation )an ee.&lained % sho'ing ho' their logi)al dimension+ 'hi)h )an e anal%sed using argumentation s)hemes+

)omines 'ith heuristi) &ro)esses triggered % emotions, Arguing 'ith emotive 'ords is sho'n to usevalue-ased &ra)ti)al reasoning grounded on hierar)hies o( values and ma.ims o( e.&erien)e (or evaluative

)lassi(i)ation,

/E0WOR1#: argumentation s)hemes+ )hara)ter atta)2s+ )entral-&eri&heral &ro)ess+ emotions+ heuristi)s+

emotive 'ords+ &ersuasion+ rhetori)al strategies

3, I"$RO14$IO"

$he 5637 Italian &residential ele)tion )an e )onsidered as a rhetori)al attle(ield, $hedi((erent &arties 8es&e)iall% the right- and le(t-'ing )oalitions9 (o)used more on atta)2ingthe alternatives than &romoting )onstru)tive &rograms, In this )onte.t+ a )ru)ial role 'as&la%ed % rhetori) and in &arti)ular % emotive 'ords, $he voters 'ere not &rovided 'ithslogans des)riing long-term &lans+ ut mainl% 'ith terms )r%stalliing negative&ro&erties o( the )om&eting &arties, Instead o( re&orting and des)riing )om&le.reasoning or length% dis)ourses+ the ne's&a&ers ;uoted su)h emotive )hara)teriationsand )ontriuted to )reating a 'ar o( e&ithets, $his &oliti)al e.am&le highlights a(undamental argumentative strateg%+ the use o( emotive or ethi)al terms, I( 'e leave (or amoment the &oliti)al and statisti)al )onsiderations and anal%e this ta)ti) (rom a&hiloso&hi)al+ argumentative and linguisti) &ers&e)tive+ 'e are le(t 'ith unans'ered

;uestions, $he (irst one )an e (ormulated as (ollo's: What ma2es a 'ord emotiveroer?+ or the

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'ounds o( another trans(ormed into a sim&le in*ur% 8Institutio 0ratoria+ VIII+ + 39, $hestrateg% o( distorting realit% is ased on the similarit% et'een the altered image o( realit%and 'hat is )ommonl% regarded as real, $he e((e)tiveness o( this dialogi)al move )an eenhan)ed % )omining the distortion 'ith other )ommuni)ative ta)ti)s, !rillo e.&loits in&arti)ular one o( them+ the use o( the )omi) role, His )hara)teriation o( the o&&onents

are (unn%+ e.aggerated+ and at the same time the% &la)e the interlo)utor in a s)enario in'hi)h the oundar% et'een realit% and (i)tion is lurred 8Me%er 5666 #mith Voth56659+ and lead the interlo)utor to a negative *udgment ased on a limited dimension o(the issue, For instan)e 'e )an )onsider his des)ri&tion o( the le(t-'ing o&&onent+ ierLuigi Bersani3:

ase 3

Bersani >is not a (as)ist, He is onl% a loser, But I a))use him o( having made arrangements 'ith

(ormer (as)ists and masons (or t'ent% %ears+ sharing among them also the ones o( this ountr%?,

In this )ase+ his atta)2 is highl% emotional and ased on heav% e.aggerations, He uses'ords su)h as >(as)ist? and >mason?5+ he des)ries him as a >loser? and de&i)ts his

a)tions as >sharing the ones o( a )ountr%?, Ho'ever+ the grounds o( his atta)2 are or )ane shared % the audien)e+ as Bersani dire)tl% or indire)tl% su&&orted memers o( thearliament having strong right-'ing &ositions or )onne)tions 'ith masoni) organiations8illegal in Ital%9, A similarl% )harged des)ri&tion is &rovided on the right-'ing 8Lega"ord9 &oliti)ian+ Roerto Maroni:

ase 5

He is a dreaming ararian, He al'a%s dreams o( (ooling us,

In this )ase+ !rillo am&li(ies the &oorl% re(ined manners o( the &oliti)ian and its &art% ingeneral+ adding a )omment on his real intentions, $he strateg% o( redu)ing a &erson to

(e' ad*e)tives the negative traits allo's the audien)e to dra' an eas% value *udgment onhim+ grounded on li2el% (a)ts that )an e also un2no'n to someone in the &uli), Forinstan)e+ he des)ries the Fiat EO+ #ergio Mar)hionne 8a (igure e.tremel% relevant (orthe Italian e)onom% and em&lo%ment+ o(ten involved in &oliti)al dis)ussions9 ta2ing (orgranted the (a)t that he has his residen)e in #'iterland, In this (ashion+ !rillo de&i)tshim as a (oreigner &lunderer:

ase 7

A #'iss )itien 'ho 'ears a )ashmere *erse% and &ursues the &oli)% o( disintegrating the Italian

industr%,

$hese des)ri&tions are e.treme and (unn%, $he% &rovide a )lear )lue (or an eas% value

*udgment+ ased on the em&hasis on (e' negative traits 8other o( his des)ri&tions involve)alling Berlus)oni >the oun)ing d'ar(? and Monti >(ather Merrin?+ the &riest in theE.or)ist9 and the omission o( other &ositive a)hievements or ;ualities, Ho'ever+ theaudien)e e.&e)ts the use o( su)h e.travagant e&ithets (rom a sho'man 2no'n (or his)omi)-&oliti)al sho's, $he (or)e and grounds o( the atta)2 are )onsidered in a t%&e o(

3htt&:''',ilgiornale,itne'sinternieetino-(allito-salma-tutto-grillo-insulto-insulto-77@C,html

8Retrieved on Mar)h 56359,

5Masonr% is illegal in Ital%+ and (re;uentl% related 'ith high-level )riminal organiations,

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dialogue di((erent (rom the real one+ mar2ed % *o2es and e.aggerations aimed atentertaining,

A )om&letel% di((erent a&&roa)h )an e (ound in MontiDs statements, He is not*o2ing at all on the )ontrar%+ he a)ts &ursuant to his )hara)ter and his role o( e)onomist+statesman and intelle)tual, He grounds his atta)2s+ mostl% dire)ted against Berlus)oni+ on

emotional and sour des)ri&tions, For instan)e 'e )an )onsider the (ollo'ing statement7

:ase

>Berlus)oni )ontinues ma2ing &romises+ tr%ing to u% the votes o( the Italian &eo&le 'ith the

mone% o( the Italian &eo&le,? NK A))ording to Monti+ >this )an lead to &o&ularit%+ ut this 'oulde a )hallenge (or a ountr% that is asi)all% 'ithout memor%, I do not 'ant to elieve that the

Italians do not rememer their &ast?,

Here+ Monti a))uses Berlus)oni o( u%ing the votes o( the Italians+ and at the same time&oisons the 'ell o( his &ossile su&&orters+ )lassi(%ing them as >&eo&le 'ithout memor%?8re(erring to the disastrous )onditions o( Italian e)onom% le(t % Berlus)oniDsgovernment9, In another intervie' he e.&li)itl% &ointed out the mismanagement o( his

&rede)essor+ )laiming to e distressed 'hen >some *a)2asses sa% that the% have le(t Ital%in good )onditions in 5633,? $his atta)2 is aimed at arousing oth anger against hiso&&onent 8Berlus)oni is de)eiving and stealing (or his o'n interest9 and )ontem&tto'ards the su&&orters thereo( 8&eo&le 'ithout memor% are li2e &u&&ets9, $he emotion o(anger is )omined 'ith (ear in the (ollo'ing similitude dra'n et'een Berlus)oni andthe ied i&erJ:

ase J

A))ording to the outgoing &rime minister+ the &romises made % #ilvio Berlus)oni >are similar to

the ied i&er o( Hamelin 'ho lures a'a% the mi)e, $he (a)t that the Italians )an elieve to some

'ords stated % t,atmouth reminds me o( the ied i&er+ 'ho ta2es the mi)e to dro'n?+ said the&ro(essor, He admits: Berlus)oni >has alread% de)eived the Italian &eo&le three times, $he (irst

time I 'as also de)eived,?

Here+ Monti unders)ores the de)eit(ul and trea)herous )hara)ter o( Berlus)oni %des)riing his &romises as aimed at >luring? the Italians to disaster and >de)eiving? them,He &oints out his un*ust and detrimental a)tions against the &eo&le to trigger anger+ 'hilethe stor% o( the ied i&er is intended to underline the danger through the (ear (or the&ossile )onse;uen)es,

$he rea)tion o( Berlus)oni to this atta)2 (ollo's the )hara)ter that he &la%s+)hara)teried % vi)timiation 8he is the vi)tim o( an in*usti)e and a )ons&ira)%9 and)loseness to ,isidea o( the stereot%&i)al Italian man 8aggressive+ 'omanier+ vulgar andso))er (an9 8em&hasis added9C:

7 htt&:''',unita,ititaliamonti-nega-nessuna-s&a))atura-su-voto-disgiunto-3,5@5 8Retrieved on 7

Mar)h 56359,

htt&:''',ilsole5ore,)omartnotiie5637-65-3Jmonti-interviene-in)hieste-;uesti-6576,shtmlthat involve a 'edding o( des)ri&tive andemotive meaning >+ and have the &o'er o( dire)ting attitudes 8#tevenson+ 3@+ &, 5369,$hese 'ords are used to re(er to a (ragment o( realit%+ ut at the same time the% have the

tenden)% to en)ourage (uture a)tions 8#tevenson+ 3@7+ &, @-J69 and lead the hearerto'ards a )hange % a((e)ting his s%stem o( interests 8#tevenson+ 3@+ &, 5369, $histenden)% amounts to a dis&osition o( su)h terms to e used to a)hieve a s&e)i(i) e((e)t+ tomove the hearer and )hange his attitude to'ards a)tion, #tevensonDs a))ount )an eanal%ed (rom t'o distin)t &ers&e)tives, On the one hand+ it is &ossile to investigate thestru)ture o( the reasoning leading (rom the &redi)ation o( a 'ord to a reason to a)t, Onthe other hand+ it is ne)essar% to anal%e 'hat ma2es a 'ord >magneti)? 8as #tevensondes)ries the emotive meaning9+ namel% strongl% en)ouraging a )ourse o( a)tion,

$he (irst ste& )onsists in in;uiring into 'hat lin2s a 'ord to a &ossile )hoi)e+ and(or this reason 'e need to uild on the logi)al a&&roa)hes to ethi)al *udgments 8$oulmin+3@J6 von Wright+ 3@C7a 3@C7 Hare+ 3@C7 /u&&erman+ 56659, On this vie'+ ethi)al*udgments are means to lead the interlo)utor to a)tion on the asis o( )ommon 2no'ledge8a )ommonl% a))e&ted rule o( ehavior9 and )riteria o( )lassi(i)ation 8'hat is a gooda)tion+ a good goal+ or more sim&l% a good )ar+ et),9, $hese t'o )om&onents are stri)tl%)omined 8Hare+ 3@C7+ &, 59:

Let us imagine a so)iet% 'hi)h &la)es a negative value u&on industr% there seem to esu)h so)ieties in the 'orld+ in 'hi)h the industrious man is regarded as a mere nuisan)e,

#u)h a so)iet% )ould never 8i( it s&o2e English9 e.&ress its moral standards % using the

'ord TindustriousT+ li2e us+ (or )ommending &eo&le+ onl% 'ith a totall% di((erent

des)ri&tive meaningUi,e, )ommending them (or totall% di((erent ;ualities+ (or e.am&le

that o( doing as little 'or2 as &ossile, I( the% did that+ 'e should sa% that the% had

)hanged the meaning o( the English 'ord TindustriousT, $he des)ri&tive meaning o(

TindustriousT is mu)h too (irml% atta)hed to the 'ord (or this sort o( thing to e allo'ed

these &eo&le 'ould e mu)h more li2el% to use the 'ord in its normal des)ri&tivemeaning+ ut neutrall% or &e*orativel% i,e, to give it no+ or an adverse+ &res)ri&tive

meaning,

1e&ending on 'hat is )onsidered to e desirale (or a given )ommunit%+ the)lassi(i)ation o( a state o( a((airs+ an a)tion or a ehavior as >good? varies, $his

@$his ta)ti) 'as also used 'hen he e.&lained he some o&en )riti)isms to his &oliti)s as atta)2s (rom the

su&&orters o( uventus 8>the% must e su&&orters o( uventus?9+ the rival o( the team he o'ns,

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&ers&e)tive is rooted in the Aristotelian ethi)al s%stem+ 'hi)h regards ever% de)isions asal'a%s aimed to a goal+ 'hi)h amounts to 'hat is good 8or etter9+ or 'hat a&&ears to egood 8or etter9 8Nicomac,ean Et,ics3337a 3J9+ >(or ever%thing aims at the good? 8thedesirale+ XYY[\]9 89o-ics 33Ca+ 3 see Burn%eat+ 3@6+ &, 79, $his a))ountunders)ores the )ru)ial im&ortan)e o( the &rin)i&les o( in(eren)e 8s&e)i(i) loci9 that 'e

use to *udge something as desirale or more desirale+ or+ on the )ontrar%+ undesirale ormore undesirale 86,etoric+ 37C5 5-39, $ogether 'ith the ideal and &hiloso&hi)al&rin)i&les o( value *udgments+ ased on 'hat shall e )onsidered as &ro&er (or the natureo( man+ Aristotle &rovides more &ra)ti)al+ or rather rhetori)al+ )riteria+ grounded on 'hatis usuall% the )ase among &eo&le, On this vie'+ values+ or &rin)i&les o( )hoi)e+ arestru)tured in hierar)hies 8erelman Olre)hts-$%te)a+ 3@J39 de&ending on a manDs)ulture and &ersonal dis&ositions:

Further+ a man o( a given dis&osition ma2es )hie(l% (or the )orres&onding things: lovers

o( vi)tor% ma2e (or vi)tor%+ lovers o( honour (or honour+ mone%-loving men (or mone%+

and so 'ith the rest, $hese+ then+ are the sour)es (rom 'hi)h 'e must derive our meanso( &ersuasion aout !ood and 4tilit%, 86,etoric37C7 3-J9

In the same 'a% also it is in )ertain &la)es honourale to sa)ri(i)e oneTs (ather+ e,g,among the $rialli+ 'hereas+ asolutel%+ it is not honourale, Or &ossil% this ma%

indi)ate a relativit% not to &la)es ut to &ersons: (or it is all the same 'herever the% ma%

e: (or ever%'here it 'ill e held honourale among the $rialli themselves+ *ust e)ause

the% are $rialli, Again+ at )ertain times it is a good thing to ta2e medi)ines+ e,g, 'hen

one is ill+ ut it is not so asolutel% 89o-ics33J 3@-59,

lassi(%ing a state o( a((airs or an entit% as >good? or >ad?+ or rather >desirale? or>undesirale? de&ends on )onsiderations aout the nature o( the thing itsel(+ ut also onthe &ur&ose in relation to 'hi)h a thing is regarded as good or ad, For instan)e+ a man)an )onsider a 2ni(e as good+ as it )uts 'ell+ 'hile another )an )onsider it as ad+ as it isdangerous or not ni)e 8von Wright+ 3@C7a9,

On this &ers&e)tive+ values )an e thought o( as the reasons (or )lassi(%ingsomething as desirale or not+ and at the same reasons (or a)tion, B% &ointing out the;ualities o( a )ourse o( a)tion+ an event or an o*e)t 2no'n to (all 'ithin the )ategories o(the interlo)utorDs >desirale or undesirale things?+ the s&ea2er )an &rovide him 'ith areason to a)t in a s&e)i(i) (ashion, $his &ro)ess o( reasoning is t'o(old, On the one hand+the s&ea2er needs to )lassi(% a state o( a((airs as (alling 'ithin a value, On the other hand+the desirailit% o( a state o( a((airs triggers a &attern o( reasoning leading a de)ision toa)t, $he (irst t%&e o( reasoning )an e des)ried as a &assage (rom the )ommitment to as&e)i(i) astra)t goal 8honest% shall e &raisedsought a(ter9 to the )ommitment to as&e)i(i) one 8this man shall e &raisedsu&&orted9, $his trans(er o( )ommitments )an ethought o( as a &assage (rom some ;ualities o( the state o( a((airs to its )lassi(i)ation

a))ording to a value+ and another+ &ro)eeding (rom values+ (rom the )ommitment to anastra)t desire to a )on)rete one, $he (irst ste& )an e re&resented 'ith the (ollo'ings)heme 8Walton+ Reed Ma)agno+ 566+ &, 73@9:

Argumentation s)heme 3: Argument (rom )lassi(i)ation


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For instan)e+ i( a man ruins 'illingl% his o'n )ountr%+ he 'ill e )lassi(ied as >evil? or>)ontem&tile?+ 'hile i( someone (ights (or im&roving it+ he )an e )lassi(ied as>honorale?,

$he &assage (rom the instantiation o( a value to the s&e)i(i) )ommitment)on)erning it )an e re&resented as (ollo's 8Walton+ Reed Ma)agno+ 566+ &, 7539:

Argumentation s)heme 5: Argument (rom Values

On this vie'+ i( >honor? is &raise-'orth% 8)ontem&tile9+ also this s&e)i(i) man is &raise-

'orth% 8)ontem&tile9,$he se)ond )om&onent o( ethi)al reasoning is the &assage (rom moral *udgment toa)tion, $he de)ision-ma2ing &ro)ess )an e thought o( as a &attern o( reasoning)onne)ting a desired a)tion+ or rather a ^de)laration o( intention_ or )ommitment toringing aout a state o( a((airs 8von Wright+ 3@5+ &, 39 'ith its grounds 8Ans)ome+3@@+ &, 339, A s&ea2er )an reason in t'o distin)t (ashions 8von Wright+ 3@C7+ &, 3C33@C7a+ h, VIII9, $he (irst reasoning is (rom a )ommitment to ring aout a s&e)i(i) stateo( a((airs to the )ommitment to the &rodu)tive or ne)essar% means to ring it aout 8'hatAelard 'ould )all the )onsensus+ i,e, the de)ision to engage in a s&e)i(i) 8good or ad9a)tivit%+ aimed at &ursuing a s&e)i(i) 8good or ad9 goal+ see AaelardiEt,ica+ C7C A9:

Argumentation s)heme 7: ra)ti)al reasoning


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A))ording to this t%&e o( reasoning+ i( m% &ur&ose is to su&&ort a s&e)i(i) honorale)andidate+ I )an )hoose among di((erent )ourses o( a)tion+ su)h as voting (or him or&romoting his ideas among voters+ and so on,

A di((erent t%&e o( reasoning &ro)eeds (rom an a)tion 'hi)h is the ne)essar% or&rodu)tive )ause o( a desirale or undesirale state o( a((airs, We )an re&resent this t%&eo( reasoning as the argument (rom )onse;uen)es 8(rom Walton+ Reed Ma)agno+ 566+&, 7759:

Argumentation s)heme : Argument (rom )onse;uen)es

For instan)e+ i( m% )hoi)e o( voting (or a )ertain &art% su&&orts the nomination o( a)ontem&tile &erson+ I 'ill not vote (or su)h a &art% 8ne)essar% )ause9, On the )ontrar%+ i(

m% su&&ort to a )ertain &art% results in an honorale &erson eing ele)ted+ I 'ill vote (orit, $hese &atterns o( reasoning need also to ta2e into )onsideration the so-)alled(oreseeale )onse;uen)es 8von Wright+ 3@C7a+ h, C9, M% goal o( having m% ta.esredu)ed )an e good ho'ever+ i( the &rodu)tive )ause thereo( also results in e)onomi)&rolems (or the )ountr% or the ele)tion o( a &erson un(it to govern the state in 'hi)h Ilive+ I 'ill e &ursuing an unreasonale goal 8I )hoose a hierar)hi)all% in(erior value overthe su&erior one9,

$his stru)ture o( reasoning that )an mirror the ;uasi-logi)al d%nami) e((e)t o(emotive 'ords is )om&le. and re;uires a noti)eale e((ort+ in addition to in(ormation thata sim&le )lassi(i)ation )annot &rovide, Ho'ever+ the ideal rationalit% is o(ten ;uitedi((erent (rom realit%, Aristotle &ointed out that desirale )an also e 'hat >a&&ears? to

e good, $he )ru)ial (or)e o( emotive 'ords lies in this sutle di((eren)e+ 'hi)h dra'sthe distin)tion et'een s%stemati) 8or )entral9 and heuristi) 8or &eri&heral9 reasoning, Inorder to anal%e this other evaluative and de)isional &ro)ess 'e need to investigate these)ond dimension o( emotive 'ords &ointed out aove+ namel% reason 'h% the% are>emotive?,

, EMO$IO"# A"1 WOR1#

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Wh% are some 'ords emotive< Ho' )an an instrument that re&resents )on)e&ts+)ommonl% used to re(er to realit%+ ring aout an emotional state< A &ossile ans'er )ane (ound in the )ognitivist a&&roa)hes to emotions, $hese studies (o)us on the rational+ orrather )on)e&tual+ dimension o( emotions+ sho'ing ho' the% are stri)tl% inter'oven8ugmire+ 3@@+ &, 9, For instan)e+ an emotion o( >(ear? &resu&&oses a value *udgment

on 'hat is (eared, I( it is not )onsidered as undesirale and &roale+ it )annot e (eared8Leighton+ 3@+ &, 56J Ben ZeDev+ 5666+ &, J9, #imilarl%+ anger involves the&er)e&tion o( an o((en)e against the sel(, Emotions &resu&&ose a s&e)i(i) evaluation o( astate o( a((airs or entit%+ 'hi)h ma2es them essentiall% di((erent (rom (eelings 81e #ousa+3@9, $o (eel an emotion )orres&onds to im&li)itl% a&&raise a state o( a((airs 8#olomon+5667+ &&, -9:

NK emotions are interestingl% similar to elie(s, We )an no' e.&lain this similarit% %)laiming that emotions are *udgments = normative and o(ten moral *udgments, >I am

angr% at ohn (or ta2ing 8>stealing? egs the ;uestion9 m% )ar? entails that I elieve that

ohn has someho' 'ronged me NK, $he moral *udgment entailed % anger is not a

*udgment aout m% anger NK, M% anger is that *udgment, I( I do not elieve that I have

someho' een 'ronged+ I )annot e angr% 8though I might e u&set+ or sad9, #imilarl%+ i(I )annot &raise m% lover+ I )annot e in love 8though I might 'ant her or need her+ 'hi)h+

traditional 'isdom aside+ is entirel% di((erent9, I( I do not (ind m% situation a'2'ard+ I

)annot e ashamed or emarrassed, I( I do not *udge that I have su((ered a loss+ I )annote sad or *ealous, NK emotions in general do a&&ear to re;uire this (eature: to have an

emotion is to hold a normative *udgment aout oneDs situation

Emotions )an e de(ined % )onsidering their a&&raisal )om&onent and their a)tiontenden)% 8ugmire+ 566J+ &, 3C /eltner Lerner+ 5636+ &, 759, $he (irst )om&onent)orres&onds to the >evaluative *udgments o( 'hether an event is good or ad and 'hether&eo&leDs )urrent a)tions and environment )orres&ond to their &ersonal goals ande.&e)tations? 8/eltner Lerner+ 5636+ &, 73J9, $he se)ond )om&onent is the organiing

&rin)i&le that motivates s&e)i(i) ehaviors or rea)tions, For instan)e+ the emotion o( (ear'ill result in a tenden)% to (lee or redu)e un)ertaint%+ 'hile anger 'ill lead the agent torestore *usti)e, $he value *udgment 8or rather the )ognitive )hange9 is the reason (or a&h%si)al and &s%)hi)al rea)tion that )an drive us to a)tion 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &,C9,

$he relationshi& et'een value *udgments and emotions highlights anotherim&ortant )hara)teristi) o( emotional a&&raisal+ i,e, its )ultural de&enden)e 8/eltner Lerner+ 5636+ &, 759, As emotions are grounded on value *udgments+ and values are&la)ed in hierar)hies that de&end on the )ulture and the individual dis&osition+ emotionsare also in(luen)ed % )ulture 8#mith Laarus+ 3@@6+ &, C59, An individualDs &aste.&erien)es e)ome )riteria (or evaluating a state o( a((airs as good or not 81amasio+

3@@+ &, 5C9, Ho'ever+ )ulture emodies the e.&erien)es o( a )ommunit%+ and in this(ashion &rovides the )riteria (or the evaluative *udgment 8see Fri*da Mes;uita+ 3@@9,On this &ers&e)tive+ an emotion is in &art )ulture-de&endent+ as it is >a s%stem o()on)e&ts+ elie(s+ attitudes+ and desires+ virtuall% all o( 'hi)h are )onte.t-ound+histori)all% develo&ed+ and )ulture-s&e)i(i)? 8#olomon+ 5667+ &, 9, $he same a)tion or(a)t )an e )onsidered as o((ensive in one )ulture 8and trigger anger9 and not-o((ensive inanother 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &&, J@-C39,

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$he stri)t relationshi& et'een value *udgments+ )ulture and emotion is theground o( the rhetori)al )onstru)tion o( emotions+ in 'hi)h emotive 'ords &la% anessential role, uintilian unders)ored the (un)tion that the >vivid re&resentation? has indis)ourse 8see also the notion o( >vividness e((e)t? des)ried % Fri*da+ 3@@+ &, 5C9,$he orator should am&li(% some details o( a state o( a((airs to add >additional (or)e to

things un*ust+ )ruel or hate(ul?+ so that he )an a'a2en >emotions 'hi)h either do notnaturall% arise (rom the )ase or are stronger than the )ase 'ould suggest? 8Institutio0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ 5C-769, Words )an e used to de&i)t a s)ene that resemles realit%+ orthat is similar to a situation related 'ith the audien)eDs e.&erien)es and memories, $heli2eliness o( the image triggers an immediate value *udgment+ resulting in an emotion8Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ 5@-739:

But ho' are 'e to generate these emotions in ourselves+ sin)e emotion is not in our o'n&o'er< I 'ill tr% to e.&lain as est I ma%, $here are )ertain e.&erien)es 'hi)h the !ree2s

)all `YXYbcY+ and the Romans visions+ 'here% things asent are &resented to our

imagination 'ith su)h e.treme vividness that the% seem a)tuall% to e e(ore our ver%

e%es, It is the man 'ho is reall% sensitive to su)h im&ressions 'ho 'ill have the greatest

&o'er over the emotions, #ome 'riters des)rie the &ossessor o( this &o'er o( vividimagination+ 'here% things+ 'ords and a)tions are &resented in the most realisti)

manner+ % the !ree2 'ord ]`YXYbcfX\ and it is a &o'er 'hi)h all ma% readil%

a);uire i( the% 'ill, NK I am )om&laining that a man has een murdered, #hall I notring e(ore m% e%es all the )ir)umstan)es 'hi)h it is reasonale to imagine must have

o))urred in su)h a )onne.ion< #hall I not see the assassin urst suddenl% (rom his hiding-

&la)e+ the vi)tim tremle+ )r% (or hel&+ eg (or mer)%+ or turn to run< #hall I not see the

(atal lo' delivered and the stri)2en od% (all< Will not the lood+ the deathl% &allor+ the

groan o( agon%+ the death-rattle+ e indelil% im&ressed u&on m% minda&&arent realit%? that is &resentto our senses and 'e )annot dout o( 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, C@ lore !as&er+

5666+ &, 5C9, $he audien)e )annot dout o( the anger that it (eels against the mer)ilessassassin des)ried % uintilian, For this reason+ his deeds+ his )ruelt%+ his hate(ulnessare a&&arentl% real, On this &ers&e)tive+ emotive 'ords )an e used to >instill elie(s?,B% &roviding the audien)e 'ith an emotional re&resentation o( a &erson+ a grou& or anissue+ it is &ossile to arouse an emotion+ and in this (ashion give the interlo)utorsomething more &o'er(ul than sheer in(ormation or truth: the sensation or the a&&earan)eo( truth,

1e&i)ting individuals+ grou&s+ or issues (rom an emotional &ers&e)tive or asa)tors in emotional events evo2es emotions+ and the emotions instill the elie()onstituting its a&&raisal dimension into the hearers 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, 9, $hegrammar o( emotions e)omes the grammar o( the emotive 'ords, When !rillo )alls

Reni+ a le(t 'ing &oliti)ian+ >little moron? and Bersani 8the leader o( the le(t 'ing)oalition9 >a loser that has shared 'ith masons and e. (as)ists the ones o( Ital%?+ he isnot sim&l% telling *o2es, His (irst des)ri&tion is aimed at de&i)ting Reni as an in(erior+triggering )ontem&t+ namel% the emotion e.&ressing >the su*e)tTs su&eriorit% over theo*e)t? 8Ben ZeDev+ 5666+ &, 7@69, $he se)ond (unn% )hara)teriation )omines the*udgment o( BersaniDs in(eriorit% 'ith his allegedl% un*ust and evil a)tions+ arousinganger and )ontem&t at the same time, Berlus)oni does the same 'hen des)ries Monti asa >s)umag? or a >madman?+ or 'hen atta)2s the *udges % )alling them >de(amation

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ma)hines? or di)tators, MontiDs image o( the ied i&er &rovides a strongl% emotionalre&resentation o( the alleged dangers in 'hi)h the Italians are running+ a'a2ening (ear,

As seen aove+ emotive 'ords are im&li)it arguments and instruments (orarousing emotions, Ho'ever+ 'hat ma2es emotive 'ords so &o'er(ul in redire)tingattitudes and )hoi)es< Ho' )an the rational dimension o( emotions a((e)t the rational

assessment o( a state o( a((airs< A &ossile e.&lanation )an e (ound in the anal%sis o( the2ind o( reasoning that emotions trigger,

J, EMO$IO"# A"1 ERIHERAL REA#O"I"!

Emotions )an e instrument (or instilling elie(s, $he% )reate an a&&arent realit%+something that 'e &er)eive as real even i( it is not, When 'e (ear a &erson that de)eivedthe )itiens+ 'e strengthen or )ommit ourselves to that elie(, When 'e (eel )ontem&t (ora leader+ 'e are led to hold his in(eriorit% as true+ even i( no eviden)e is &rovided, When'e hate the o((i)ers o( a &uli) institution+ 'e do not need (urther &roo(s to *udge theira)tions as un*ust, Emotions &rovide us 'ith a &i)ture o( realit% that is more li2el% than the

one su&&orted % data and &roo(s,$he reasoning triggered % emotions 'as )learl% des)ried % uintilian, On hisvie'+ the orator should am&li(% a des)ri&tion to arouse a &assion+ e)ause &assionstrigger a (orm o( reasoning that is di((erent (rom the s%stemati) one, $he *udge+ 'henover)ome % &assions+ >aandons all attem&ts to en;uire into the truth o( the arguments+is s'e&t along % the tide o( &assion+ and %ields himsel( un;uestioning to the torrent?8Institutio 0ratoria+ VI+ 5+ C9, Emotions+ as seen aove+ &resu&&ose and &rovide the agent'ith an a&&earan)e o( realit%+ an a&&raisal that is not the result o( a )are(ul assessment+ut the out)ome o( an immediate and sim&li(ied &er)e&tion+ an intera)tion et'een theindividualDs )on)erns and the o*e)t 8lore !as&er+ 5666+ &, 769,

Emotions ma2e us *um& to )on)lusion+ trigger generaliations ased on singlee.&erien)es 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, JJ9+ resulting in attriuting a single e&isodi))hara)teristi) 8>he loo2s dangerous?9 to inner+ essential &ro&erties 8he his evil9+ ore.tending an event 8>he ehaved adl%?9 over time 8>he has al'a%s een ad?9, #u)helie(s are strong+ as the% are (elt+ and >'hat is &resent to the senses )annot easil% edouted to e.ist? 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+ &, C9, For this reason+ emotional *udgmentsare hast%+ iased and automati) )on)lusions o( right and 'rong 81amasio+ 3@@ !reene Haidt+ 56659+ in the sense that the% are not grounded on a su((i)ient assessment o( thein(ormation availale+ nor )an the% e easil% reutted % more lu)id and )are(ul thoughts8/eltner Lerner+ 5636+ &, 7739, $his (ast a&&raisal triggers an immediate a)tiontenden)%+ a sudden de)ision to a)t in )on(ormit% 'ith the emotion e.&erien)ed8Loe'enstein Lerner+ 56679, $his )omination o( hast% and iased *udgment andde)ision-ma2ing attitude )hara)teries the emotional thin2ing 8Fri*da Mes;uita+ 5666+&, C9:

Emotion-steered thin2ing sho's (our (eatures that ma% hel& e.&lain its in(luen)e u&on

elie(s, $he (irst is instrumentalit%, We entertain thoughts that might hel& to a)hieve our

emotional goals+ and e)ause the% might hel&, Emotional thin2ing tries to solve the

&rolems &osed % the emotional &redi)ament, $he se)ond is motivational (or)e, $he

more urgent our goals+ the greater the in)lination to do 'hat ma% hel& to rea)h them+

in)luding thought, Emotional thin2ing is driven % emotional urge, $he third is )ontrol o(

the s)o&e o( thought, Emotional thin2ing is loath to 'aste time and energ% % attending

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to irrelevant detail or indulging in )om&le. in(eren)ing, $he (ourth (eature is motivated

ias, Emotional thin2ing is iased to'ards elie(s that su&&ort oneTs emotional aims+ and

to'ards retrieving or generating in(ormation that does,

Emotional thin2ing is e.tremel% &o'er(ul e)ause it re;uires little &ro)essing e((ort %the agent, He has not to )are(ull% evaluate all the eviden)e )on)erning )om&le. issues

and s%nthetie it a momentar% (eeling )an trigger em&iri)al generaliations+ leading tostrong and &ersistent value *udgments 8/eltner Lerner+ 5636+ &, 7739,

Emotional reasoning has een anal%ed as di((erent (rom the >)entral? ors%stemati) t%&e o( reasoning+ 'hi)h re;uires e((ort+ time and in(ormation 8hen hai2en+ 3@@@9, Emotions &rovide the individual 'ith easil% a))essile in(ormation+namel% mental )ontents that immediatel% )ome to mind 8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, C@@ 6C9,$hese a))essile )ontents+ )onstituted % &rotot%&es+ stereot%&es 8namel% generaliationsa))essile e)ause o( their emotional valen)e9 or )hanges a((e)ting oneDs emotions s&arethe individual the e((ort to &ro)ess in(ormation and result in an eas%+ heuristi) *udgment8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, 3C9, For instan)e+ the similarit% o( an o*e)t 'ith a &rotot%&eresults in similar *udgment 8/ahneman+ 56679 the similarit% et'een t'o emotional

e.&erien)es results in a *udgment on the similarit% o( the situations or o*e)ts triggeringthem 8lore !as&er+ 5666+ &, 5C ett% et al*+ 566+ &, C9, $his (ast and eas% t%&e o(reasoning has een )alled as &eri&heral or heuristi) route to &ersuasion 8ett% et al*+ 566Jhen hai2en+ 3@@@9, Instead o( assessing a &oliti)al leader ased on hisa)hievements+ re)ords+ or values+ 'hi)h 'ould result in great e((ort+ a &erson ma% resortto a mu)h less )om&le. *udgment+ grounded on a >heuristi) attriute that )omes morereadil% to mind? 8/ahneman+ 5667+ &, 69, For instan)e+ the attriutes o( eing a>madman?+ a >s)umag?+ a >moron?+ a >di)tator?+ a >ararian? or a >&ied &i&er? )omeeasil% to mind+ as the% have triggered an emotional res&onse, Even 'hen su)h attriutesare )om&letel% irrelevant 8>s)umag?9 or utterl% (alse 8>di)tator?+ >madman?9+ the%&rovide us 'ith a )riterion+ a &eri&heral route to *udgment,

#ometimes emotive 'ords are needed in order to summarie in a )ondensedargument and &rin)i&le o( heuristi) reasoning more )om&le. reasoning, MontiDs )hoi)e toengage in the attle o( insults )an e &artiall% e.&lained % the need o( &roviding thevoters 'ith an alternative route to a *udgment+ a short)ut to his )om&le. e)onomi) and&oliti)al )onsiderations, Ho'ever+ i( the a&&earan)e o( realit% is good 'hen it mirrors it+it )an e)ome highl% de)eit(ul 'hen )on)eals it 8ett% et al,+ 566J+ &, 369:

NK sometimes the &eri&heral route might e the onl% strateg% &ossile, For e.am&le+

there are some issues or o*e)ts (or 'hi)h there are (e' strong arguments 8e,g,+ imagine

tr%ing to sell )igarettes 'ith a high tar )ontent9, It is not sur&rising that in these )ases+ ads

t%&i)all% )ontain hardl% an% in(ormation aout the merits o( the &rodu)t 8e)ause there

are none or ver% (e'9 and instead )ontain attra)tive endorsers or ma*esti) s)ener%,

When arguments su&&orting honest% or )orre)tness )annot e &rovided+ 'hen *udgmentsased on &ast re)ords )annot e suggested+ 'hen reasons (or elieving that a )andidate is)redile or is a)ting (or the good o( )ountr% )annot e (ound+ the onl% resort is to ta2e theother route, In this )ase emotive 'ords are no longer &re-&a)2aged reasoning+ ut mas2s+instruments (or de)eiving, Moreover+ the e((e)t o( these emotional e&ithets )an edevastating on the other route+ the rational one 8Loe'enstein Lerner+ 56679, $he)entral and s%stemati) &ro)ess )an e a((e)ted % various variales 8ett% et al*+ 566J9,

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Emotive 'ords )an inhiit the )entral and more e((ort-re;uiring t%&e o( reasoning andtrigger the other+ (ast and iased+ &ro)ess 8lore !as&er+ 5666+ &, 769:

On)e an emotion is e.&erien)ed+ the s%stem no longer o&erates as a s)ientist+ )are(ull%

'eighing the &ros and )ons o( the elie( im&lied % the emotion, Instead+ the emotional

&erson a)ts li2e a &rose)utor or a de(ense la'%er see2ing % an% means to (ind eviden)e

(or the elie(, resumal%+ the e.&eriential as&e)t o( the emotion is itsel( res&onsile (orthis &ro)ess o( interru&ting the (lo'+ &roviding in(ormation+ and+ through asso)iated

elie(s+ guiding attention,

Wea2 arguments are &er)eived as stronger 'hen the attention needed (or the s%stemati)&ro)essing lo'ers 8ett% et al*+ 5669,

On this &ers&e)tive+ emotive 'ords are instruments o( de)ision ma2ing that )an ee.tremel% e((e)tive, Ho'ever+ *ust li2e all &o'er(ul instruments+ the% )an e alsoe.tremel% dangerous, $he (ragment o( realit% that the% ring to the interlo)utorDsattention+ the a&&arent realit% that the% &rovide )an e a s%nthesis or a mas2, Emotive'ords )an &rovide a s%moli)+ summaried reason (or a )on)lusion+ ut at the same time

the% )an a)t as strategies (or &revent a )are(ul assessment o( a situation,learl%+ 'hen the eviden)e that su)h 'ords are sim&l% lies or e.aggerations is too)lear+ the strateg% itsel( ris2s turning against the s&ea2er, For this reason+ other ta)ti)s areused to &revent &ossile )riti)isms or in)rease the urden o( an atta)2, !rillo a)ts in a)omi) environment+ 'here e.aggerations are regarded as instruments (or triggeringhumor and entertainment, A))using him o( distorting realit% 'ith his e&ithets 'ould eli2e a))using him o( eing entertaining, Berlus)oni &la%s et'een t'o roles+ a)ting as alight-hearted and mundane entertainer and a serious &oliti)ian a))ording to his)ommuni)ative &ur&oses, Moreover+ % turning &oliti)al atta)2s into a (ight o( &ersonalinsults and &la%ing the indignant and angr% role+ he manages to shi(t a deate into a;uarrel+ t'isting the intentions o( his o&&onents,

C, O"L4#IO"

In the late-medieval diale)ti)al theor%+ (alla)ies 'ere des)ried a))ording to t'o )riteria:their reason (or the semlan)e+ the &lausile a&&earan)e that ma2es the &eo&le assent tothe argument+ and a reason (or the (ailure+ (or their eing 'ea2 or invalid 8/retmann+/enn% inorg+ 3@5+ &, 359, Emotive 'ords &rovide an a&&earan)e o( realit%+ a&er)e&tion o( a state o( a((airs that ma2es them instruments (or easil% dra'ing a value*udgment in )onditions o( la)2 o( time+ resour)es or in(ormation, Ho'ever+ the samesemlan)e o( realit% )an e used to re&la)e it 'ith a distorted image+ and lead theinterlo)utor to a *udgment ased on irrelevant or (alse attriutes, $he inner rationalit% o(these 'ords (ades a'a% 'hen &eri&heral thin2ing ta2es the &la)e o( the s%stemati) one,

Emotive 'ords are &o'er(ul and dangerous instruments+ oth (or the audien)eand (or the s&ea2er, For this reason+ the% are o(ten )omined 'ith side ta)ti)s that leaveunaltered their rhetori)al 8&ersuasive9 e((e)t 'hile a((e)ting their diale)ti)al anddialogi)al (or)e, A )omi) a)tor )annot e a))used o( e.aggerating or eing irrelevant+ anangr% man )annot e lamed (or eing aggressive or voi)ing his &ersonal o&inions 8eveni( &uli)all% and 'hen a)ting as a &uli) (igure9,

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A/"OWLE1!EME"$#: $he author 'ould li2e to than2 the ortuguese Fundao&ara a ijn)ia e $e)nologia (or the resear)h grant on >Argumentao+ omuni)ao eonte.to? 8$1FIL-FIL33633566@9,

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Aaelardi , 83J9, 0-era 0mnia8a))urante ,, Migne9, atrologia Latina 3, aris: !arnier-Migne,

Ans)ome+ !, E, M, 83@@9, ra)ti)al In(eren)e, In R, Hursthouse+ !, La'ren)e W, uinn 8Eds,9+

.irtues and 6easons8&&, 3-79, O.(ord: larendon ress,

Aristotle 83@9, Rhetori)a, $ranslated % W, Rh%s Roerts, In , Barnes 8Ed,9+ 9,e com-lete :or8s of

Aristotle, rin)eton: rin)eton 4niversit% ress,Aristotle 83@9, $o&i)a, $ranslated % W, A, i)2ard-amridge In , Barnes 8Ed,9+ 9,e :or8s of

Aristotle, rin)eton: rin)eton 4niversit% ress,

Aristotle 83@@J9, "i)oma)hean Ethi)s, In , Barnes 8Ed,9+ 9,e com-lete :or8s of Aristotle+ vol, II,

rin)eton: rin)eton 4niversit% ress,

Ben-ZeTev+ A, 856669, 9,e 1ubtlet2 of Emotions, amridge: MI$ ress,

Burn%eat+ M, 83@69, Aristotle on Learning to e !ood, In A, Rort% 8Ed,9+ Essa2s on Aristotle;s Et,ics8&&,

C@-@59, Ber2ele%: 4niversit% o( ali(ornia ress,

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&ersuasion, In , #, #eiter !, H, !ass 8Eds,9+ ers-ectives on -ersuasion3 social influence and

com-liance gaining8&&, CJ-@9,Boston: All%n Ba)on,ett%+ R,+ a)io&&o+ ,+ #trathman+ A, , riester+ I, 8566J9, $o thin2 or not to thin2< E.&loring t'o

routes to &ersuasion, In $, Bro)2, M, !reen 8Eds,9+ ersuasion= s2c,ological insig,ts and

-ers-ectives85nd ed,+ &&, 3-33C9, $housand Oa2s+ A: #age uli)ations,

ugmire+ 1, 83@@9,6ediscovering emotion, Edinurgh: Edinurgh 4niversit% ress,

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uintilian+ M, 83@@C9, Institutio 0ratoria, $ranslated % H, E, Butler, amridge+ Mass,: Harvard

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what we hide in words: value-based reasoning and emotive language

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