Who am I?Opportunity, choice,

socialization and transition

Kate Mackenzie Davey, Birkbeck, University of Londonk.mackenzie-davey@bbk.ac.uk

Identity and work

• How did I come to be in this job?• How was I socialised into this occupation?• How is my work viewed by others?• Where do I go from here?

Self concepts and occupations

• Vocation: Identification with a specific occupation• Experience: knowledge or awareness of occupations,

possibly by chance• Rational decision making: awareness of possession of

appropriate assets:• Both developmental and differential• Implement self concept• Development and choice combined in career

adaptability (Savickas, 2005)

Rational occupational choice

• Person-environment fit (Parsons, 1909)

– People are different– Jobs are different– By studying both we can get a good match between

the two

• Two groups of attributes– Rewards sought and satisfaction offered– Individual ability and job demands

• Evidence suggests better fit leads to higher well being (Tinsley, 2000)

• However, not all careers are equally rewarding or desirable

Influence of early socialization

• Socialised early within family – self concept, identity– expectations, feedback, support, modelling,

information

• Opportunity structure limits occupational choice– Structural and social class influences (Roberts, 1977)

• Need to acknowledge both psychological, cultural and structural forces

• Occupation choice embedded in social context and individual identity: reinforcing

Joining work:Initial preparation and

encounter

• Socialization (Willis, 1977)

• Contract negotiation (Herriot, 1987)

• Climate of mutual selling (Schein, 1978)

• Realistic previews (Wanous, 1977)

• Reality shock (Hughes, 1958)

• Change, contrast, surprise (Louis, 1981)

Initial work socialization is influential. How far does this apply to job change?

Work Socialization tactics

Which of these apply to Medical training?

• Collective or individual

• Formal or informal

• Sequential or random

• Fixed or variable

• Serial or disjunctive

• Investiture or divestiture

Institutionalised or individualised socialization? Institutionalised leads to

• Passive acceptance of pre-set roles• Reproduces the status quo• Reduces uncertainty• Reduced role ambiguity• Reduced role conflict• Lower intention to quit• Increased fit to job and organization• Increased job satisfaction, commitment, performance• Custodial approach to role• Reduced innovationHow to maintain security and increase

innovation? (Jones, 1986, Saks et al 2007)

Psychological contract

• “an employee’s subjective understanding of promissory-based reciprocal exchanges between him and herself and the organization” (Conway & Briner, 2005, p.35)

• Negotiations of development in exchange for capability, loyalty and flexibility (Rousseau, 1995; Herriot & Pemberton, 1996)

Types of contract

• Relational• Transactional• Hybrid or balanced: (Dabos & Rousseau, 2004)

• Idiosyncratic (I-deals) (Greenberg, Roberge, Ho & Rousseau, 2004)

• Issues of fulfillment, breach and violation• Tendency for employers to offer transaction

and expect relational (Ho, Ang & Straub, 2003)

Desirable aspects of work environments

• Environmental clarity and feedback• Variety• Level of pay• Job security• Externally generated goals• Interpersonal contact• Opportunity for skill use• Opportunity for control• Valued social position

• How does being a doctor score here? Relative to what?

Career anchors (Schein, 1978)

• Self perceived– Talents and abilities– Motives and needs– Attitudes and values

• Developed through early interactions in work

• Constrain career decisions

• Technical-functional competence,

• Managerial competence• Autonomy/independence• Security/stability• Entrepreneurial creativity• Service/dedication• Pure challenge• Lifestyle

Continuity and change

Focus on stability and continuity• Links to maintaining identity and stable self concept (Sugarman,

2001)• External continuity: familiar environment, activity, people.

Pressure to maintain career and construct cv accordingly• Internal continuity: maintenance of sense of identity: our

awareness of consistent structure of ‘ideas, temperament, affect, experiences, preferences, dispositions, skills (Atchley,1989)

• Career embeddedness (Cooper & Mackenzie Davey, 2011)

Change seen as • Positive development or growth• Response to changing context• in line with capacity to cope (Atchley,1989) or as threatening• Emplotment (Cochran, 1997) “a comforting story we tell

ourselves” Nicholson & West (1988)

Career wellbeing • Career mobility but not job loss, poor adjustment• Relationships: feedback, support, recognition• Autonomy and power• Effective performance and challenge, not boredom• Sense of purpose• Developing or prospect of new skills• Work life issues (see Gibson & Borges 2009; Hoff et al 2002,on

physicians)

• Career success Subjective and objective (Ng, Eby et al, 2005)

How does your job score?Why change?

Changes

• Ambition, need for achievement or challenge• Individual growth and development (or

avoiding boredom, plateau)• Social timetable: Convention of career ladder• Organizational or occupational change• Social trends

– Quality of life– Managing dual careers/caring for family– Migration– Employability

Development and attitudes

• “… satisfaction with development and career management reduces turnover and promotes loyalty and commitment towards the employing organization (Arnold & Mackenzie Davey, 1999; Sturges & Guest, 2001)” Zaleska & de Menezes 2007:1007

• Organizational commitment: Job challenge, self motivation, internal training, coaching not secondments and external training? but changing over time

• Dissatisfaction: Job insecurity lack of career prospects • Organizations not offering cross functional, inter-

organizational opportunities or employability• Job challenge

Changes in organizations, in careers and in public

policy• Delayering –downsizing• Devolution- decentralizing• Outsourcing• Competencies• Diversity• Psychological contracts• Multiskilling and flexibility• Boundaryless- new boundaries• Unemployment, education, legislation…

Boundaryless careers

• “A range of possible forms that defies traditional employment assumptions” (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996:3)

– Portable skills and marketability– Job rotation, networking– Self management, entrepreneurial– Developmental not vertical– Mobile, flexible– Shift in commitment? (Sparrow, 1996; Hechsler)

– Involuntary– New boundaries? (King et al)

Work role transitions

• Any move into and/or out of a job, any move between jobs, or any major alteration in the content of work duties and activities (Nicholson & West, 1988)

Transition stages Hayes et al 1976

• Immobilisation• Minimization• Depression• Letting go• Testing• Searching• Internalization

This is based on studies of bereavement. Is it appropriate for all work transitions?

Transition cycle (Nicholson 1987)

Encounter IISense making

copying

Stabilisation IVCommitment effectiveness

Preparation(I&V)

Expectation, desire

Adjustment IIIPersonal changeRole innovation

relationships

Transition cycleNicholson 1987

• Preparation– Self appraisal, make contact, Realistic preview– Problem: unrealistic expectations, fear

• Encounter: – Coping, sensemaking,– Problems: shock, regret, rejection

• Adjustment: – personal change, role innovation, developing

relationships– Problem: misfit

• Stabilization: – Commitment, effectiveness– Boredom, stagnation, plateau

Identity transitions

• Maintaining stability while negotiating change.– From a to A – from A to B– From A to z – From A to Ab – Or even from A to a

• Risks of changes from– Role ambiguity– Role overload– Role conflict

Your transitions• Identify the key transitions you have

experienced. To what extent– Did you change the tasks?– Did you change the role?– Did you change or develop?

• Identify transitions you are likely to encounter in your future careers.– What challenges do you anticipate?– What support is available

• From the organization• Elsewhere