WHS AP Psychology

Unit 2: Memory (Cognition)

Essential Task 2-2:Outline principles that help improve memory functioning at each stage: encoding - attention, chunking, serial positioning effect, deep versus shallow processing, and rote rehearsal storage - decay theory, elaborative rehearsal, spacing effect, method of loci, and link method retrieval - retroactive interference, proactive interference

Attention

All the rest

External Stimuli

Sensory Registers

gone

Short Term Memory

Long Term Memory

Retrieval

1. Encoding

3. Retrieval

2. Storage

Information Processing Model

We are here

Essential Task 2-2:

• Improving Encoding– attention– chunking– serial positioning effect– Schemata and Hierarchy– deep versus shallow processing

• Improving storage – decay theory– spacing effect– Rote rehearsal vs. elaborative rehearsal– Mnemonics like method of loci and link method

• Retrieval – Retrieval Cues and Priming– Situational factors– State dependent– Allow for Parallel Processing– Overcoming retroactive interference – Overcoming proactive interference

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Improving Encoding

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Attention? Pay Attention

• You can consciously decide to pay attention to something.

• If you don’t pay attention it won’t enter your STM and never get to your IPM.

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Chunking

• The grouping of information into meaningful units for easier handling by short term memory.

• M-S-N-N-A-S-A-C-I-A-C-O-M Or• MSN NASA CIA COM

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Conduct Inclusive Memory Activity Now

Serial Position Effect

• People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list

• Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together

• Primacy effect reflects long-term memory• Recency effect reflects short-term

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Serial Position Effect

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Schemata

• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience

• Incoming information is fit with existing schemata – (concept maps)

• Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event

• Reconstruction– Memories can be altered with each retrieval– We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our

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Hierarchy

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided

into categories and subcategories.

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

Conduct Processing Activity Now

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Deep Versus Shallow Processing

Deep Processing analyzes meaning

Shallow processing does not

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Improving Storage

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Decay Theory

• The decay theory argues that the passage of time causes forgetting.

• The longer information is not accessed, increases the chances of forgetting it.

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Spacing Effect

•Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once. You can memorize a poem a lot easier if you break it down into 5 parts over 5 days instead of all at once.

Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Rote rehearsal– Repetition can result in long-term

memory– Only effective if there is intent to learn

material– Example: What does a penny look like?

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Maintaining Long-Term Memory

• Elaborative rehearsal– Process of relating new information to

information already stored in memory– Meaning is assigned to new information

and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

– Hence Psych Immersions

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Link Method

• First imagine a silly, memorable image that represents the type of list you want to remember. Also include in this image the first item on the list (see below for example). This image is your header for the list.

• Think of another silly, memorable image that links the first item on the list to the second item and so on.

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Method of Loci

• In this technique the subject memorizes the layout of some building, or the arrangement of shops on a street, or any geographical entity which is composed of a number of discrete loci. When desiring to remember a set of items the subject literally 'walks' through these loci and commits an item to each one by forming an image between the item and any distinguishing feature of that locus.

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Improving Retrieval

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Retrieval Cues

Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like

anchors that help retrieve memory.

Fire Truck

truck

red

fire

heatsmoke

smellwater

hose

Priming

To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first

activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

Where and when matters

• Situational factors– Recall of information is better if environment is

the same as when information was learned• State-dependent memory

– Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned

Parallel Processing

• Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon is when you can almost recall something, but can’t quite get it.

• If you leave it your brain will continue to work on this problem eventually surfacing with the answer.

• Thus you later yell out the name of the actor and everyone looks at you like you are odd.

Interference

• Retroactive interference– Occurs when new information interferes

with information already in memory– Retro means old– In this term the old information is being

tested– Thus the new information is doing the

interference.Outline

Try remembering the following number

• 8132163• Ok that was easy because nothing

interfered with you.

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Now let’s try some interference• 4982631• First, consistent with cognitive dissonance theories,

we are able to induce optimism or pessimism with the initial (random) wage assignment. With respect to the first-stage task, this implies that we can successfully manipulate one’s ability-beliefs in the lab. Secondly, subjects who received this low piece-rate in stage one were willing to accept significantly lower offers in a second-stage ultimatum game. This finding is striking, demonstrating the presence of both belief manipulation and spillovers of those beliefs into behavioral outcomes in an unrelated and distinct experimental environment.

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Try remembering the following number

• 5614982• 92589386

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Retro-active Interference

• The last two were examples of retro-active interference

• In each one, it was the OLD (retro) information that was being tested.

• The last trial was the hardest because it overloaded your modality.

• What type of music should you listen to when you write an essay?

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Retroactive Interference

Sleep helps prevent retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to

better recall.

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Interference

• Proactive interference– This is when new information is being tested.– The old information already in your LTM interferes. – It is tough to teach an experienced show dog new

tricks.– Psychologists have found that recall of later

items can be improved by making them distinctive from early items. For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference

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I need a volunteer that knows their colors.

• Don’t read the words, just say the colors they’re printed in and as fast as you can

• This is called the stroop effect

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RedYellowGreen

BlueRedBlue

YellowGreenBlueRed

Interference• When you look at the words you

see both its color and meaning.• When they are in conflict you must

make a choice• Experience has taught you that word

meaning is more important than color so you retrieve that information.

• You are not always in complete control of what you pay attention to.

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Schemata

• A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience

• Incoming information is fit with existing schemata • Schemata can also influence the amount of

attention paid to a given event• Reconstruction

– Memories can be altered with each retrieval– We do this to keep the schemata of our self and our

environment

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