why build big telescopes? ideas for teaching resolution,...

Science Teachers’ Workshop 2002

Tara TARA Anglican School for Girls 1

Why Build Big Telescopes?

Ideas for Teaching Resolution, Sensitivity and ModernTelescope Design in the Astrophysics Option

Robert Hollow

Tara Anglican School for Girls

[email protected]

Introduction

The Astrophysics option of the Stage 6 Physics Syllabus states that “Our understanding of celestial objects dependsupon observations made from Earth or space near the Earth” (Board of Studies, 1999). In addressing this point studentsneed to specifically address the concepts of resolution and sensitivity and their impact on observations.

This paper aims to provide teachers with a range of ideas and activities plus some useful data with which to cover thesyllabus requirements. It is not intended to provide a detailed theoretical background on the concepts as this is bettercovered in the various references but rather it aims to clarify some key teaching points and misconceptions about them.

Some emphasis is given to the Gemini Project telescopes for a couple of reasons. Firstly, it is the large optical telescopeproject with which Australia is most directly involved through a formal partnership with the consortium. As Australianastronomers make scientific discoveries with these telescopes, the profile and public awareness of this internationalcollaboration will hopefully rise. It is important that Australian students are made aware of the collaborative nature ofmuch of modern science and Australia’s contribution to this. Secondly, the educational resources starting to becomeavailable from the Gemini Project are innovative, engaging and directly address several of the Syllabus dot points.Finally, the technologies applied to the Gemini telescopes directly relate to the key points of this paper.

Syllabus Requirements

The 1999 Board of studies Stage 6 physics Syllabus has recently been amended yet again. Some of these changesimpact directly on the concepts covered here. Whilst these changes are not valid until the 2003 HSC, I have used thelatest version in this paper. These are included below for ease of reference: (Board of Studies, 1999 and 2002)

Students learn to: Students:

1. Our understandingof celestial objectsdepends uponobservations madefrom Earth or spacenear the Earth

• Recall the components of theelectromagnetic spectrum and describethe properties of each component

• Explain why some wavebands can onlybe detected from space

• Define the terms resolution andsensitivity

• Discuss the problems associated withground-based astronomy in terms ofresolution and atmospheric distortion

• Outline methods by which theresolution and sensitivity of ground-based systems can be improved,including:

- adaptive optics

- interferometry

- active optics

• process information to discussGalileo’s utilisation of the telescope toidentify features of the moon

• identify data sources, plan, chooseequipment for, and perform aninvestigation to demonstrate why it isdesirable for telescopes to have a largediameter objective lens or mirror interms of both sensitivity and resolution

• gather, process and present informationon new generation optical telescopes



The first two dot points of the second column revisit material first covered in 8.2 The World Communicates and will notbe directly addressed here (see Useful Web Sites at the end of the paper for additional information). Reading the rest ofthe section, however, shows that the key themes of resolution and sensitivity form the focus of the dot points. These,therefore, also form the focus of this paper. The first dot point of the third column requires a discussion of Galileo’s useof the telescope, with specific reference to the Moon. This may, at first glance, seem out of place or tokenistic but it canserve as an effective introduction to the whole module and to the ideas of sensitivity and resolution in particular. Thenext section briefly addresses this point.

Galileo’s Use of the Telescope

Galileo’s systematic use of the refracting telescope, commencing in 1609, was a seminal moment in observationalastronomy and the history of science. His publication of Sidereus nuncius or “The Starry Messenger” in the followingyear allowed his observations to be discussed and verified by others across Europe. Modern translations of this work arereadily available (Galileo, 1989) and reproduce his drawings of the Moon (reproduced below), Jupiter’s moons, Orion,the Pleiades, and the nebulas in Orion and Praesepe. These can form the basis of a simple observational exercise(available on request from the author) that students can do at home. Stores such as Australian Geographic sell cheaprefractors for about $20. I have one, which I issue to students for a few nights and also have available for viewing nightswhen larger, modern reflectors are used. The cheap refractors are remarkably similar in size, resolution and sensitivityto those used by Galileo. By using one of these small, hand-held telescopes, students sketch their observations andcompare them with Galileo’s. They soon learn to appreciate the care and skill needed for effective observations.Typically they get frustrated by the vibration from their hands and the difficulty in actually locating and holding thescope on an object. These points serve to introduce the need for rigid and effective telescope mounts and the concept offield-of-view. When resolution and sensitivity are formally introduced, students can calculate the theoretical values ofeach for a Galilean telescope and compare with more modern ones. A final mention needs to be made of The GalileoProject (http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/). This site contains a vast amount of material related to every aspect ofGalileo’s life and times. Source material could be incorporated into a range of tasks.

Galileo’s drawing of a Crescent Moon Galileo’s drawing of a Quarter MoonPicture credits: (Galileo, 1989)

Sensitivity and Resolution

What is sensitivity? This simple question can generate a range of responses from students. It serves as an effectiveopening question particularly as it soon leads to mention of telescopes. At this point the misconceptions normally startto arise. Follow-up questions such as why are telescopes so large?, or what is the purpose of a telescope? in turn shouldproduce mention of magnification from one or more students. Ask your class how many of them have a telescope.Unless you have an amateur astronomy enthusiast within the class, the best you will find is one or more students whomay have been given a telescope from a department store. Typically these are sold on the basis of their magnification,often claiming something like see 500 x magnification! Most students believe telescopes are devices for magnifying thenight sky. The true roles of telescopes, to gather light from faint sources and resolve sources clearly, are notimmediately apparent to most.

Essentially a telescope is used for one of two functions (Smith, 1995); imaging in which pictures of celestial objects areclearly resolved, requiring optics that produce a sharp image, or photometry, where the incoming radiation is measuredeither for brightness or split to obtain a spectrum. Photometry traditionally did not require the level of resolutionnecessary for effective imaging but modern multi-fibre spectroscopes such as 2dF (2 degree Field) instrument on the



Anglo-Australian telescope are only effective if numerous objects in a dense field (eg a star cluster or deep galaxycluster) can be individually resolved.

Sensitivity is a measure of how much light a telescope can gather. All other things being equal, a telescope of largerprimary mirror or lens is more sensitive than one with a smaller primary, that is, it can collect more light. The size of aprimary mirror or lens is normally expressed in terms of its diameter. A simple phrase often used by astronomers is thatof the light bucket. The bigger the bucket, the more light can be poured into it. The more sensitive a telescope, the morelight it can gather from faint objects. The more light gathered, the fainter the object (or the more distant for a given classof object) that can be studied photometrically or imaged. Exercise 1 outlined overleaf suggests ways in which studentscan explore the idea of sensitivity and develop a mathematical relationship between mirror (or lens) diameter and theamount of light gathered.

Of itself, sensitivity is but one factor that makes an effective telescope. Equally important is the ability of a telescope todistinguish between, that is, resolve, close objects. For circular apertures, such as in telescopes, where the light raysfrom a source are parallel, as is the case for distant point sources of light such as stars, the light will be diffracted so asto form an Airy disc. The circular diffraction pattern formed contains 84% of the light in the central bright spot withdecreasing percentages in the surrounding bright rings. It is the size of the Airy disc that imposes a limit on resolution.Two objects are said to be resolved if their Airy discs are sufficiently separated to be seen as distinct (Smith, 1995).Rayleigh proposed the criterion that two point objects are just resolved if their angular separation is such that the centralmaximum from one point source lies on the first minimum of the other (Muncaster, 1997). The theoretical resolvingpower of a telescope can be determined by the expression:

Dλ

θ22.1

=

(Equation 1)where θ is the angular separation (in radians),λ is the wavelength of the light being collectedand D is the diameter of the primary.Both D and λ must be in the same units and it is only valid for D >> λ.

Note this equation as it stands may pose a problem for students primarily due to the fact that it uses radians as a measureof angle. Whilst not specified in the syllabus, this expression is useful to discuss with students as it allows for severalideas to be subsequently developed from it. If you wish to avoid the added complexities of introducing the concept ofradians (though some students may have covered it in their mathematics studies), the alternative form of the equation:

Dλ

θ5101.2 ×

=

(Equation 2)where θ is now in seconds of arc or arcseconds.

may be simpler. One problem with using this form, however, would be in trying to use it in a spreadsheet such as Excelas these typically calculate angles using radians.

Using this equation for visible light, students can easily calculate the theoretical resolution for a fully dilated human eyeto be about 0.3 arc minutes. In practice, corneal imperfections reduce this further to only about 1 arc minute(http://cfao.ucolick.org/AO/whatisao.html). If an optical device such as an eye or telescope achieves its theoreticalresolution in operation it is said to be diffraction limited.

Whilst not specified in the syllabus, a useful point worth mentioning that arises from the resolution equation is theeffect of increasing wavelength on theoretical resolution. Students can calculate values for key wavebands such asradio, infrared, visible and UV and compare the resolutions for a specified size of telescope. The exercise could then betackled again, this time asking the question; what size telescope is needed at each waveband to achieve 1 arc secondresolution? From this, discussion on the similarities and differences between optical and radio telescopes can bedeveloped. Higher frequency bands such as X-rays could be included in the exercise but the smaller wavelengths ofthese means that telescopes designed for them have to utilise grazing optics rather than the more traditional reflectionmethods.

In reality, many telescopes, particularly large ones, do not reach their theoretical limit for resolution. This is due to anumber of factors, most of which are due to the effects of Earth’s atmosphere, collectively referred to as seeing. Theyare discussed in the following section.

The Turbulent Atmosphere – Seeing, Refraction, Absorption and Scattering.

Our atmosphere is constantly in motion. It is a mixture of gases, water vapour, dust and other suspended particles. Allthese impact on the ability of a telescope to receive light and to clearly resolve an image.



The most obvious effect is that of absorption. Most radiation incident on the Earth’s upper atmosphere does not reachthe ground. The atmosphere is effectively opaque to all but some radio wavebands and light in the optical window. Thisincludes the entire visible region (390 nm – 780 nm) plus the near ultraviolet, near infrared and some far infraredwavebands. Much of the infrared (21 µm to 1 mm) suffers absorption from water and carbon dioxide molecules whilstmost ultraviolet undergoes absorption by ozone. Gas atoms and molecules absorb X-rays and γ-rays (Muncaster, 1997).Students have discussed the effects of these in Stage 5 so should be able to suggest reasons for selective transmission ofwavebands through the atmosphere. This material is also covered in modules 8.2 and 8.5 of the Preliminary Course. Afirm grasp of these concepts will help students develop effective responses to questions related to the location andlimitations of modern telescopes. Examples are given in some of the activities that follow.

Scattering of light is strongest when the wavelength of the light is of the same order of magnitude as the diameter of thescattering particles. Visible light, therefore, is more readily scattered by dust and mist than infrared. This can bedemonstrated by the use of a torch and an infrared remote control; visible light, from a bright, narrow torch beam forexample, is readily scattered by fog or a cloud of fine particles such as talcum power or chalk dust. By shining a torchbeam on the cloud, students should be dazzled by the back-scattered light. In contrast, infrared red radiation can passthrough readily. Aiming an infrared remote control through the cloud should still enable the settings on a television orvideo to be controlled. Replacing the dust cloud with a beaker of water (or a suspended clear plastic bag of water toavoid disputes about the glass) should see the infrared remote control ineffective due to the absorption by the water.The light on the other hand should pass through unaffected. These simple demonstrations can be used to introducediscussion as to where to site infrared telescopes. They can also serve as starting points to show images of the galacticcentre and various nebulae at different wavelengths, which in turn are important in developing a model for stellarformation.

Variations in density of the atmosphere in a line of sight with an object cause intensity fluctuations. The variations inthe refractive index of a cell of air above a telescope will alter the apparent position of an object, normally over a rangeof a few arcseconds. Collectively these effects combine to make point sources such as stars appear to “dance” about.This rapid change in brightness and position is termed scintillation. Ask your students if they can distinguish between astar and a planet merely by observing the night sky. Stars “twinkle” more than the bright planets because they are somuch more distant that they are effectively a point source. Their light gets smeared across a seeing disc a fewarcseconds in diameter. Planets, with an angular diameter of ~10-30 arcsecs are extended sources and thus less affected.Turbulent cells of air in the atmosphere limit the actual resolution of telescopes in the optical wavebands to typically nobetter than that obtained by a 20-cm telescope. The seeing at any location depends upon many factors and changes dueto temperature, weather, pollutants and local microclimate. Good locations may achieve a typical seeing of 1 arcsecondbut most sites are worse than this. Even the best sites rarely achieve seeing of better than 0.5 arcseconds (O’Byrne1996). If the resolution a telescope achieves is limited by the seeing rather than its diffraction limit it is said to be seeinglimited.

Activities on Resolution, Sensitivity and SeeingThere are many simple and effective ways in to convey aspects of resolution, sensitivity and seeing. Several ideas andactivities are presented here. In some cases it is hard to remember the original source of a demonstration or idea butothers have been adapted from two key sources (Pompea 1994) and (Gibbs 1999). Both of these are excellent resourcebooks and recommended for all teachers of physics. Others not discussed here are readily available in new texts(Andriessen et al 2001).Exercises for Sensitivity

1. Eyes and Pupils. The simplest way to show sensitivity is for students to observe each other’s pupil diameters indim light and then compare it with the diameter in bright light. If done the other way around, going from bright tolow light, more time is needed for pupil dilation but some dim objects, previously set up behind the students canthen be observed to see when they become visible. It takes about half an hour for the eye to become fully dark-adapted but once this is achieved the eye is about 2000 x more sensitive than in daylight. (Pompea 1994).

2. Viewing Nights. If you hold a viewing night as part of the module, allocate some of it to naked-eye astronomy.Ideally have students present before dusk. As twilight proceeds, have them sit down and gaze out into the distance.They will gradually lose the ability to distinguish colour. This is related to light intensity and the cone and rodreceptors in the eye. The cones that detect colour require higher light levels, therefore are less sensitive (andabundant) than the rods responsible for gray scale vision. By also looking at the sky, students should also graduallysee more and more stars become visible. Simple pre-prepared star charts of prominent constellations (Scorpius inwinter and Orion in summer are easy to find) can be used to determine the limiting magnitude of the location andprovide a measure of the seeing for that night. Competitions such as who can detect the faintest object can keepstudents occupied when telescopes are being used by others.

3. Cardboard Cut-Outs. Provide students with scale cut-outs of various telescope primaries (a list of examples isprovided below in activity 4). These could range from small telescopes to large optical ones such as the 10-m Kecktelescopes. The scale chosen will depend upon the size of the available paper but larger sheets such as A3 or evenbutcher’s paper give better results for the large primaries. Students simulate the light-gathering ability of each



mirror or lens by placing small, regular-sized objects such as tiddly-winks or dried peas on the cut-outs and thencounting the number that fit into the area. These tiddly-winks can represent “photons” or equal amounts of light.The students then tabulate the results and try and determine a mathematical relationship between size of theprimary and the amount of light (ie tiddly-winks) collected. If they plot number of “photons” against primarydiameter they should get a parabolic curve or close to it. To verify this they could then try “photons” against(diameter of primary)2. The level of direction from the teacher will depend upon time available and student ability.If time is short, the task could be broken up, with small groups of students tackling one or two telescopes each andthen collectively tabulating the class results. This option also allows a larger data range to be generated. Anothervariation is to make up templates for each from plywood. By surrounding the edge of each with a 1-cm high strip ofcardboard or similar, the templates can be filled up with dried peas. These can then be weighed to provide the“number of photons” more quickly than counting objects on a flat sheet, albeit sometimes with greater range ofuncertainty which in itself can provide a useful teaching point. Conceptually, this approach also underpins the“light-bucket” analogy.

4. Mathematical Modelling and Spreadsheets. Many students will fairly quickly suggest a mathematicalrelationship based upon the diameter (or radius) of a collecting surface and its surface area. This idea can beefficiently examined using spreadsheets. The examples shown below give an Excel worksheet with data for a rangeof telescopes (contact the author for a copy). Numerical values for sensitivity and resolution have been calculatedand sample plots generated. The amount of information and guidance given to a class again depends upon timeavailable and experience.

(Resolution calculations for light at 550 nm)Telescope Diameter of

Primary (m)Radius

(m)Number of"photons"

Square ofPrimary(m^2)

Theoreticalresolution(arcsec)

m arcsec Resolutioncompared

to eye

human eye 0.008 0.004 3 0.000064 1.44E-03 1.44375 1Galilean refractor 0.03 0.015 44 0.0009 3.85E-04 0.385 4

4-inch refractor 0.1 0.05 491 0.01 1.16E-04 0.1155 138-inch Dobsonian 0.2 0.1 1963 0.04 5.78E-05 0.05775 2560-cm reflector 0.6 0.3 17671 0.36 1.93E-05 0.01925 75Yerkes Refractor 1 0.5 49087 1.00 1.16E-05 0.01155 125Herschel's reflector 1.2 0.6 70686 1.44 9.63E-06 0.009625 150Lord Rosse's 1.83 0.915 164389 3.3489 6.31E-06 0.006311 229ANU 2.3m 2.3 1.15 259672 5.29 5.02E-06 0.005022 288AAT 3.9 1.95 746619 15.21 2.96E-06 0.002962 488Hale 5 2.5 1227185 25.00 2.31E-06 0.00231 625Bolshoi Teleskop 6 3 1767146 36.00 1.93E-06 0.001925 750Gemini 8.1 4.05 3220623 65.61 1.43E-06 0.001426 1013Keck 10 5 4908739 100.00 1.16E-06 0.001155 1250CELT 30 15 44178647 900.00 3.85E-07 0.000385 3750Euro50 50 25 122718463 2500.00 2.31E-07 0.000231 6250OWL 100 50 490873852 10000.00 1.16E-07 0.000116 12500



Relative sensitivity vs diameter of primary

y = 49087x2

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

0 2 4 6 8 10 12Diameter of primary (m)

Rel

ativ

e se

nsi

tivi

ty

Note only telescopes up to Keck have been included in the plots. Plotting relative sensitivity against primarydiameter2 gives:

Exercises for Resolution

5. Eyes. Draw two dots about a millimetre apart on a piece of paper. Have this stuck up on a wall or on the edge of aboard so that it is not immediately obvious. When appropriate, ask students to look at it and describe what they see.They can then move to the opposite side of the room. Ask them to walk slowly towards it and stop when they canresolve it into two dots (Gibbs 1999). This provides a quick and effective introduction to the concept of resolution.Numerous variations are possible. Print out copies of a message in different sized fonts or an image in different

Relative Sensitivity vs Square of Primary

y = 49087x

R2 = 1

0

1000000

2000000

3000000

4000000

5000000

6000000

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Primary Squared (m^2)

Rel

ativ

e S

ensi

tivi

ty



sizes. Get students to see at what distance they can read the messages or describe the images. Another variationinvolves holding a coin up and asking students to identify the denomination or the image on it as they walk towardsyou along a corridor or across an oval.

6. Lasers. Two lasers or laser pointers can be set up pointing onto a piece of white paper taped onto a wall so thatthey converge, appearing as a single dot. As one of the lasers is moved slowly, two distinct points become visible(Pompea 1994). This can also be related to the resolution of visual binaries. Ensure you take appropriate safetyprecautions whenever using laser products. Another use of a laser is to produce Airy discs through a telescope. Thelaser is shone onto a steel ball bearing. The reflected light appears as an Airy disc when observed through atelescope set up many metres away (down the end of a corridor for example). The focus of the telescope can beadjusted to emphasise the effect. This demonstration needs to be strictly controlled, with the optical arrangementbest set up and aligned before hand. Students should be kept well away from the ball bearing/laser region until afterthe effect has been observed and the laser switched off.

7. Telescopes. Apart from the demonstration outlined in the previous section there are several other ways in whichresolution can be demonstrated using a telescope. Some but not all require night time viewing. The size of atelescope is not essential although if you have two or more of different sizes student can qualitatively investigatetheir differences.

a. The effect of aperture on resolution. Preparing masks of cardboard that fit over the front of the telescope canalter its aperture (Pompea 1994). These masks can be of decreasing aperture (the effect of shape can also beinvestigated). The effects are most noticeable when the aperture is not too large, the seeing is good and brightstars are observed at high magnification (if you have different eyepieces try those with the lowest number onthem , eg 9-mm instead of 25-mm). Stars are so far away that even the largest, close ones at best subtend anangular diameter of a few milli-arcseconds, so rather than resolving their surfaces, they form an Airy disc.Diffraction images should be obvious when masks are used. Compare the image with and without masks. Thentry the same sequence when observing the Moon or a planet. As these are extended sources their surface can beresolved so little, if any, effect should be apparent.

b. Observing Visual Binaries. A common challenge for amateur astronomers is to see which visual binaries canbe resolved or “split” using a given optical configuration. Many popular astronomy magazines and observingmanuals publish lists of suitable candidate stars that can be selected for comparison observations. Moregenerally, the stars of Crux and the Pointers (actually part of Centaurus) provide easily located and resolvedtelescopic binaries. Many students have difficulty reconciling a telescopic view of the visual binary α Cen Aand B with what they see with their naked eye. A significant number confuse the telescopic view with thepairing of α Cen and β Cen, the two bright naked eye stars of the Pointers.

c. Aligning cards to show resolution. (Pompea 1994) Construct a card with a narrow slot about one mm widethat cuts across the centre of the card and is as wide as the aperture of the telescope. With the card fixed on thefront of the telescope, have students observe a brick wall at middle distance (across a quadrangle orplayground for instance). When the slot is horizontal, the vertical mortar joints in the wall should be visible butnot the horizontal ones. Rotating the slot so that is vertical makes the horizontal joints appear but the verticalones disappear.

Exercises for Seeing

8. Naked-Eye Observing. The simplest way to observe the effect of seeing is to encourage students to view objectsin the night sky. They should look at objects close to the horizon and compare them with others high overhead nearthe zenith. Most should detect that stars seem to “twinkle” more when close to the horizon. If a bright planet is upstudents should see if they can see any differences between it and stars in the same region of stars. By observingover several nights, students may appreciate that the seeing varies according to atmospheric conditions.

9. Using a Telescope in Daytime. Given the difficulty often encountered in arranging a viewing night and thenactually getting clear skies, it is handy to have ways of demonstrating some atmospheric effects during the day.Any type of telescope can be used, as optical quality is not essential for demonstration purposes. This activityworks best if you can place the telescope at one end of a dim corridor and place the other equipment at the far end,ideally in low light. “Stars” can be simulated by using a cheap fibre optic torch, which are readily available fromtoy shops or science shops at museums. Pass a few of the strands through a black piece of card so that the points oflight face towards the telescope to form a constellation. Make sure that the distance between the points of lightvaries. When viewed through the telescope, ensure that at least two “stars” close together are visible in the samefield of view. Placing a fan heater or other heat source just below and in front of the constellation card simulatesthermal disturbance of the atmosphere. When turned on, the heater sets up convection cells that should distort theimage in the eyepiece. Ideally the two stars merge into one extended, twinkling source.

10. Telescopic Observation of Celestial Objects. Use a high magnification eyepiece to observe and compare brightstars near the horizon and the zenith. Focus the telescope on a bright planet, preferably Jupiter or Saturn and let



students observe how the clarity of the image varies in real time. If you have a video camera you may be able toconnect it to the telescope and a monitor so that more students can see it. The Moon is another object that is easy toobserve and shows the effects of the atmosphere.

11. Studying the Location of Modern, Large Optical telescopes. Ask students to obtain and plot the locations of alloptical telescopes larger than those in the 4-m class. This information is quickly obtained from the SEDS LargeTelescope site at http://www.seds.org/billa/bigeyes.html. See if they can identify any trends in the locations. Theyshould realise that the bulk of these modern instruments are built in only a handful of places, notably Mauna Kea inHawaii and various regions of the Chilean Andes. Other large telescopes have also been built on mountains on thewest coast of California and on the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. These sites share some common factors;most obviously they are at high altitude therefore above a lot of the local weather and atmosphere. The more astutestudents may realise that all these sites are either on the west coast of continents or on mid-ocean islands. This is nocoincidence. Given that the typical weather patterns move from west to east it means that the air masses movingover the telescopes have traversed a broad expanse of ocean and so have not picked up much in the way ofpollutants. As the air rises as it hits the coast and mountain it tends to lose any moisture low down. As it has nothad time to be heated by large expanses of warm air it does not become too turbulent. The result is a laminar flowof air across the observatory. The lack of turbulence provides sub-arcsecond seeing whilst the absence of watervapour makes these sites ideal for infrared and millimetre wave observations.

Adaptive and Active Optics

As is evident from the earlier discussion of atmospheric effects, modern telescopes such as the 8.1-m Gemini telescopesin practice can not achieve their theoretical resolution limit. Instead they are not much better in resolution than a 20-cmtelescope. Why then do astronomers spend millions of dollars building such instruments? One reason that studentsshould offer in answer to this question is the improvement in sensitivity. Even without improved resolution, a largetelescope can still gather more light than a small one. This is vital for tasks such as spectroscopy of faint galaxies andstars. Some students may offer the solution of placing telescopes above the atmosphere, as is the case for the HubbleSpace Telescope, removes the problem of atmospheric turbulence altogether. This point is worth discussing withstudents. They should be asked to find out the cost of the HST program and the size of its primary mirror thenreconsider their response (an 8-m class ground-based telescope such as Gemini can be built for about one thirtieth of thecost of the HST for example). Additional reasons are succinctly provided at What is Gemini?(http://www.ausgo.unsw.edu.au/background.html)

The development of new materials and computer control technologies allow telescopes to correct the effects of theatmosphere and build large, thin mirrors that are much lighter than those used in earlier generations of large telescopessuch as the 200-inch Hale telescope on Mount Palomar. Using the techniques of active and adaptive optics, these largetelescopes can overcome many of the effects of the atmosphere and obtain improved resolution. This section does notprovide detailed theory as to how each of these works as this is available from a range of comprehensive sources. DrJohn O’Byrne, from the University of Sydney, gives a useful overview of the issue with a local perspective in a Sky &Space article (O’Byrne 1996). This magazine may be available in school libraries. Similar, updated articles are likely tobe found in periodicals such as Sky & Telescope, Scientific American, Astronomy and Mercury. Students must outlinehow these techniques can improve the resolution of ground-based systems hence must also be able to distinguishbetween them.

Active Optics: Overcoming Primary Mirror DistortionNo mirror can be made perfectly smooth. Distortions in the reflecting surface reduce the quality of any image formed.Prior to the 1980s, primary mirrors were rigid with a thickness normally about one-sixth the diameter (O’Byrne 1996).This ensured that they did not flex when pointing to different regions of the sky. The weight of the primary required astrong mounting system that also added to the overall mass of the system. Thick mirrors also take longer to reachthermal equilibrium each night, reducing the achievable resolution and adding to seeing effects. Modern primaries,however, can be made very thin. Those for the Gemini telescopes are only 20-cm thick. The mounts for these thereforecan be much lighter. The problem is that the mirrors sag under their own weight as they point to different parts of thesky. To produce any worthwhile image the primary must be actively corrected by continuous computer control. Bymeasuring a reference star within the field of view, corrections are sent to electromechanical actuators on the back ofthe primary. These push or pull on a section of the primary to change its shape. Active optic systems correct the primaryshape about once per minute.

Adaptive Optics: Correcting Atmospheric EffectsWhereas active optics corrects for the distortion of the thin primary as it moves around, adaptive optics corrects for thedistortions in an image caused by atmospheric turbulence. Adaptive optics systems operate at high frequencies,typically about 1 000 Hz. This is too fast for altering a primary so adaptive optic systems are designed to act via thesecondary mirror and additional optical elements placed in the light path. There are several different methods that canbe used to monitor and correct the incoming wavefront of light but many use a tip-tilt mirror and a thin, deformable one



(see Junor et al 1998, O’Byrne 1996, and Schilling, 2001 for more detailed treatments and diagrams). Vital to all is theneed for powerful, fast computer processing and modelling of the incoming waveforms. Systems either rely on a brightreference star within the field of view (which is surprisingly hard to find given the narrow field of view in many largetelescopes) or they produce an artificial reference star using a laser. At present, adaptive optics is still a new technologyand many systems are still in the developmental phase. Apart from the reference star problem, most systems also trade-off sensitivity for resolution as each additional optical element scatters some light and adds a small amount of heat,degrading infrared performance (Schilling, 2001).

This image shows the effect of adaptive optics operating at infrared waveband on a globular cluster

Photo courtesy of Gemini Observatory, National Science Foundation, and the University of Hawaii's Adaptive OpticsGroup (http://www.gemini.anu.edu.au/public/adaptive.html)

Activities for Active and Adaptive OpticsIt is harder to demonstrate the concepts of active and adaptive optics than those of resolution and sensitivity. There arehowever, some useful sources of computer-generated imagery that can help convey the concepts.

12. Gemini North Virtual Tour and Simulations CD-Rom. The Gemini Observatory Image Gallery CD-ROMcontains a beta version of a virtual tour of the Gemini North telescope. The virtual tour contains animatedaudiovisual explanations of the active and adaptive optics systems plus a couple of games that simulate how thesesystems work. Students can use actuators on the primary to match its shape with an incoming waveform andcontrol an adaptive optics system to correct for atmospheric distortions. The tour also walks through the differentparts of the telescope building, introduces you to some of the astronomers and engineers, shows the structure of thetelescope and dome, discusses the science of the telescope, shows the other telescopes on Mauna Kea and discussesthe indigenous cultural and archaeological significance of the mountain. It is a valuable resource that runs underQuickTime on both PC and Mac platforms. Currently it is still in a beta version and under development. Somecopies are available from the paper’s author but it is not formally distributed in Australia.

13. Euro50 Web site. This site discusses a Swedish proposal to build a 50-m optical telescope. Within theVisualization of optical performance frame is a series of simulated images of a stellar cluster showing the effect ofdifferent Strehl ratios on adaptive optical performance. The Downloads frame also contains these linked as a large(64 Mb) avi movie. Other comparable images and simulations are given in the Useful web sites section at the rearof this paper.



Interferometry

Astronomical optical interferometry may involve intensity interferometry, a process pioneered by Robert HanburyBrown in Australia or speckle interferometry (Smith, 1995). In essence, optical intensity interferometry is the sametechnique that has been used for many years on radio interferometers such as the Australia Telescope Compact Array,ATCA (see the ATCA Live! Page at http://www.narrabri.atnf.csiro.au/public/atca_live/atca_live.html for real timeinformation on what is being observed) and the Very Large Array at Socorro in New Mexico, famous in the filmContact. The key difference is that as the wavelength of the light is much smaller than that of radio waves, the precisionrequired in the optical path is much higher. Cumulative errors of less than a micron can render observations useless(Jayawardhana, 2002). This is a key reason why it is only recently that large intensity optical interferometers havebegun to be widely developed. The references and useful web sites listed at the end of the paper provide more detail onthe theoretical aspects of optical interferometry and include a number of useful diagrams. It is worth stressing tostudents that Australian astronomers and engineers have had a key role in pioneering interferometric techniques. It isworth investigating the Sydney University Stellar Interferometer site for more details(http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/astron/susi/).

The Sydney University Stellar Interferometer, NarrabriNSW

(http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/astron/susi/)

As the interferometers being developed for the twin 10-m Keck telescopes, the European Southern Observatory’s fourVery Large Telescope units and others such as at Mount Wilson come into everyday use, many exciting discoveries areexpected. The predicted resolution of these will make them very powerful instruments.

Modern Large Optical Telescopes

A visit to Large Telescopes http://www.seds.org/billa/bigeyes.html provides an up-to-date list of all the large opticaltelescopes in the world with links to the relevant home pages for each. It is a useful starting place for information onthem. Additional information can regularly be found in the popular astronomy magazines and other scientificperiodicals (Jayawardhana, 2002, and Stix, 1999). The topic of new generation optical telescopes can form the focus ofeffective secondary research tasks. Given the number of telescopes available and depending upon class size, eachstudent or small group can be allocated their own telescope to research. The author has run this as an oral presentationassessment task with success. Rather than provide an overview of all the telescopes that fit into this category, theGemini Project will be examined briefly as an example below.

The Gemini ProjectThe Gemini Project (http://www.gemini.edu/) is a multi-national collaboration that has built two identical 8.1-mtelescopes, one in the northern hemisphere atop Hawaii’s Mauna Kea at 4 200 m and the other in the southernhemisphere in Chile on Cerro Pachón at 2 700 m. Australia currently has a 5% share in the project, which also includesthe United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Chile, Brazil and Argentina. Having identical telescopes provides coverageof the whole sky and allows innovative observing programs to be undertaken. The Gemini telescopes are optimised foroptical and infrared observations and incorporate adaptive and active optics technologies. One hundred and twentyactuators correct the distortions caused by gravity in the 20-cm thick mirror to preserve its precise shape. A typicaladjustment is only about a thousandth the thickness of a human hair.



The image shows the Gemini Northmirror receiving its first coating ofaluminium. Eventually both Geminimirrors will be coated with silver. This willimprove the infrared capabilities of thetelescopes.

(Photo Courtesy of Gemini Observatory)

It is not just the optical design and technology that makes the Gemini telescopes superb instruments. Unlike traditionaltelescope domes, the 45-m high Gemini domes open up at night to allow smooth air movement across the structurethrough 10-m wide vents. This reduces the effect of dome-seeing and along with the 20-cm thickness of the primaryallows thermal equilibrium to be reached sooner.

Further details can be obtained form the Gemini home page (http://www.gemini.edu.au) and from the excellent GeminiObservatory Image Gallery CD-Rom that contains the Gemini North Virtual Tour discussed earlier.

This image shows the thermal ventsfully open on Gemini North dome atsunset. The observing slit is partiallyopen, revealing the truss and top endof the telescope.

(Copyright 1999, Neelon Crawford –Polar Fine Arts, courtesy of GeminiObservatory and National ScienceFoundation)



References

Andriessen, M., Pentland, P., Gaut, R., and McKay, B., 2001, Physics 2 HSC Course, Y. McCallum (consultant),(Jacaranda: Milton), ISBN 0 7016 3466 9.

Board of Studies NSW, 1999 amended 2002, Physics Stage 6 Syllabus, (Board of Studies NSW: Sydney), ISBN 0 73134358 1.

Galileo, G., (translated by A. Van Helden), 1989, Sidereus nuncius, (University of Chicago Press: Chicago), ISBN 0-226-27903-0.

Gibbs, K., 1999, The Resourceful Physics Teacher 600 Ideas for Creative Teaching, (Institute of Physics Publishing:Bristol), ISBN 0 7503 0581 9.

Jayawardhana, R., 2002, The Age of Behemoths, Sky & Telescope, Vol. 103, No. 2, 30-37.

Junor, B., Restaino, S., Duric, N., 1998, Seeing the Details of the Stars with Next Generation Telescopes, Mercury, Vol.27, No. 5, 26-30.

Muncaster, R., 1997, Astrophysics and Cosmology, (Stanley Thornes Publishers: Cheltenham), ISBN 0 7487 2865 1.

O’Byrne, J., 1996, Sharper eyes on the Sky, Sky & Space, Vol. 9, No. 4, Issue 39, 20-24.

Pompea, S. M.(ed), 1994, West’s Great Ideas for Teaching Astronomy Second Edition, (West Publishing Co: St Paul),MN, ISBN 0-314-03509-5. (Note a third edition, greatly expanded, was published in 2000 and would be worthinvestigating).

Schilling, G., 2001, Adaptive Optics Comes of Age, Sky & Telescope, Vol. 102, No. 10, 30-40.

Smith, R. C., 1995, Observational Astrophysics, (CUP: Cambridge), ISBN 0 521 27834 1.

Stix, G., 1999, A New Eye Opens on the Cosmos, Scientific American, Vol. 280, No. 4, 82-89.

Useful Web SitesThere is a wealth of information available on the web. These sites provide information at a range of depths. Some aremore suited as general introductions whilst others provide detailed technical information. Many give links to other sites.They are arranged according to topic.Galilean Telescopes and Observations

The Galileo Project http://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/ is an essential site at Rice University for all things to do withGalileo. It has a wealth of material including copies of his observations and a page, Making a Galilean Telescopehttp://es.rice.edu/ES/humsoc/Galileo/Student_Work/Astronomy96/mtelescope.html

Atmospheric AbsorptionObservations at other Wavelengths http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/light/other.html is part of a set of lecturenotes that has a useful table showing what types of objects are observed at what wavelengths, a diagram showing theatmospheric windows and a link to SkyView at NASA from which views of the sky at different wavelengths can begenerated.

Resolution, Sensitivity and SeeingB.04 What is the resolution of a telescope? http://www.faqs.org/faqs/astronomy/faq/part2/section-6.html gives a conciseanswer to his question. It is part of large set of answers to frequently asked questions.

ASTR1020-002—LESSON 2 http://cosmos.colorado.edu./astr1120/lesson2.html provides a concise coverage of the keypoints related to sensitivity, resolution and interferometry as applied to telescopes on Earth and in space. It is part of anonline hypertext course by Richard McCray at University of Colorado that also contains other useful pages.

M74—the Effects of Astronomical Seeing http://www.astr.ua.edu/gifimages/m74seeing.html provides a useful split-frame image of the galaxy M74 that shows the effect that atmospheric turbulence has in the resolution obtainable fromground-based observations.

The Purpose of a Telescope http://astrosun.tn.cornell.edu/courses/astro201/purpose.htm is a simple page that addressesseeing, resolution and diffraction limits for telescopes, linking to other pages in this set of lecture notes. The page onseeing has a nice set of four images showing the effects of seeing on an image of galaxy clusters.



Telescope Resolution http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~pfrancis/phys2023/notes/node15.html by Australian astronomer DrPaul Francis is concise, reasonably technical and discusses resolution of telescopes in different wavebands. It is part ofhis online course notes.

Adaptive and Active OpticsAn introduction to active and adaptive optics http://www.eso.org/projects/aot/introduction.html from the EuropeanSouthern Observatory provides a clear, authoritative introduction to these areas. The language is challenging butconveys the key points. Laser guide star and multi-conjugate adaptive optics techniques are discussed.

The Center for Adaptive Optics http://cfao.ucolick.org/ at the University of California, Santa Cruz, contains a number ofparticularly useful pages including clear, concise descriptions on resolution, what adaptive optics is, why it is useful andhow it works.

Euro50 http://www.astro.lu.se/~torben/euro50/index.html provides information on Swedish plans for a 50-m telescope.If you go to the Downloads frame you can obtain an avi movie file that models the effects of adaptive optics inresolving a star cluster. The file is about 64 Mb. The Visualization of optical performance frame provides similarimages in a more compact format.Gemini Adaptive Optics Home Page http://www.gemini.edu/sciops/instruments/adaptiveOptics/AOIndex.html is atechnical site for scientists and engineers and hence may be too detailed for students but may serve as a source for verykeen students.The VLT Active Optics System http://www.eso.org/projects/vlt/unit-tel/actopt.html gives details on the system used forthe four 8.2-m mirrors of the Very Large Telescope in Paranal, Chile.

Optical InterferometryAstronomical Optical Interferometry http://www.cus.cam.ac.uk/~rnt20/interferometry/ast_opt_int/page1.html is adetailed site with numerous links to other interferometry pages. It provides some useful diagrams and a wealth ofhistory and theory.

ATCA Live! http://www.narrabri.atnf.csiro.au/public/atca_live/atca_live.html provides real time updates about the six22-m dishes of the Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescope at Narrabri in northern NSW. Although a radiorather than an optical interferometer, it serves as a useful comparison.

Keck Interferometer http://huey.jpl.nasa.gov/keck/ provides an overview and details about the plan to link the two 10-mKeck telescopes to together to form an optical interferometer

MWO – Education – Presentations – Interferometry http://www.mtwilson.edu/Education/Presentations/Interferometry/is a useful article from the Mount Wilson Observatory educational team covering the basic idea of wave interference,the Michelson-Morely experiment and the application of interferometry to astronomy. This brief article would also beuseful for module 9.2 Space.

OLBIN Links http://olbin.jpl.nasa.gov/links/ is a NASA site providing information on all optical long baselineinterferometry projects, both ground-based and space-based.

Scienti f ic American: Feature Article: A Sharper View of the Stars: March 2001http://www.sciam.com/2001/0301issue/0301armstrong.html provides a clear, detailed overview of the theory andengineering behind optical interferometry and the scientific value of it. It is an excellent source that includes effectivediagrams.

SUSI Home Page http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/astron/susi/ is the site for the Sydney University StellarInterferometer, a 640 m baseline optical interferometer at Narrabri, NSW built and run by the Institute of Astronomy.The site has brief but clear pages such as What is stellar interferometry? that are at appropriate depth for students.

Modern Optical TelescopesLarge Telescopes http://www.seds.org/billa/bigeyes.html regularly updated site tabulating all the large opticaltelescopes in the world. It is organised according to operational status of telescopes and lists them by aperture,providing additional information on name, location, latitude and longitude and brief comments. Most telescopes arelinked to their relevant homepages. This site is a valuable source of data and a good reference for students to commenceany secondary research task.

Welcome to the Gemini Observatory Web site http://www.gemini.edu/ is the home page for the Gemini telescopeproject. Links are provided to a range of pages including those dealing with the engineering and technology,observations, media releases and images. An Australian Mirror Site is also available at: http://www.gemini.anu.edu.au/

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