Why Does the National Park System Develop a Split

Personality

Jekyll – Good of Preservation

Hyde – Evil of Consumption

• The end of the 19th century is a period of tremendous growth and therefore of environmental exploitation– the first world is expanding (RR expansion eg)– domination and taming of wilderness– disappearance of wilderness

• J A Macdonald “doctrine of usefulness” - if it works do it

• Manifest destiny - might is right– ie railway workers as sod busters

EXTINCTION - EXPECTED

• Extinction is a natural process

• Question

NOTICEABLE EXTINCTION

• Passenger Pigeon– Most numerous bird

on the planet

– estimated pop. 5 billion

THE SENSE OF LOSS

• Passenger pigeons were so numerous that flocks flying overhead would blot out the sun for hours

• branches of trees would break under the weight of the birds landing on them

• villages would have competitions with small cannons - who could kill the most

• in one year 1867 in Wisconsin 1 billion killed

LAST PASSENGER PIGEON DIED IN 1916 IN A ZOO

• The last sighting in Canada was in 1902

• Why massive and quick extinction?

BISON IN N. AMERICA

• Similar timing to the passenger pigeon

• In 1800 about 60 million animals and an interlinked population of 300,000 Plains Natives

• By 1879 few animals and many tribes were starving

SIMILARITY OF REASONS

SUMMARY

• Writers such as Thoreau arguing for preservation

• James Audobon publishing Birds of America

• The US Department of the Interior established in 1849 - eventually responsible for parks in 20th century

• The evident disappearance of species

• The writings of George Marsh and the concept that human action does modify the environment

• The establishment of “preserved” areas by law– first national reserve in the world is Yosemite in 1862– Yellowstone in 1872– Banff is established as a reserve in 1885– Algonquin is established as a provincial park in 1893

FIRST CONSERVATION MOVEMENT - 1890’S

• Important as a concept because this is developed not for emotional reasons but for rational, utilitarian motivations

1. RESOURCE SCARCITY

• The unending frontier of American development was shutting down

• No new pioneers as “uncivilized” land is used up

• Therefore orderly development was the next step– still exploitation, but more efficient and rational

management (can include game animals in this list)

2. DETRIMENTAL IMPACTS FROM DEVELOPMENT

• Marsh had pointed out that America was squandering its heritage

• Realization that human activities could have negative impacts on the environment

• More importantly these impacts could affect the ability of the economy to grow and develop

3. SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

• Rising education levels and progressive attitudes towards wise use of resources

• Attitudes against trusts and combines

4. SCIENTIFIC RATIONALITY

• Government leading in the sense of management of resources - government agencies and policies

• Professional and sound management in all areas, including the environment

CONCLUSION

• THE PRIMARY PUSH IS ONE OF ECONOMIC MOTIVATION

• ONE HAS TO PROVIDE A MOTIVATION THAT IS MORE CONCRETE THAN GENERAL THEORY– INTEREST OF HUNTERS (RESOURCE

USERS) AND GOVERNMENT– LOCAL SUPPORT (EMPLOYMENT)

PRESERVATION OR CONSERVATION ?

• Original movement puts emphasis on preservation– greater contrast to outright exploitation

• preservation implies no development– Problems

• Implication that resources are being withdrawn from all use

• Distrust in selected use and difficult to see the return of ‘non-use’

• Self-interest tends to be a higher motivator (T. Roosevelt as an example)

FIRST CONSERVATION MOVEMENT

• Marked by an emphasis on government action and agencies

• emphasis - Canadian Commission of Conservation 1909 - “forests, waters, lands, minerals, and wildlife are to be developed, used and conserved– note the order and emphasis of the statement– quote 1917 “conservation means economy and

development at the same time”

CONSERVATION• Conservation implies use - specific use

• The greatest good for the greatest number for the greatest period of time– this is more of a utilitarian approach

• The battle between the two philosophies is still with us today– The Sierra Club is an example of a

preservationist group

• The other tendency out of this period is for the Canadian system to lag behind the U.S.– the establishment of parks– in 1905 the U.S. forest service established and

by 1906 the first “Canadian Forestry Conference”

CONCEPT OF UTILITY

• In both societies the concept of utility (use) takes priority over the concept of virgin preservation– important for later developments such as long

term forestry leases in parks

• benefit of arguing for wise use in a rational economic sense– use the same arguments as the opposition

• “to conserve human and natural resources means not only to prevent waste but also to plan and develop future growth

END OF THE PERIOD

• WWI creates a push for development that takes precedence over the ideas of preservation and conservation

• accented by a post-war recession and recovery– conflicts with developers and between

government departments

– an end to certain restrictions and a period in the 20’s of unconstrained exploitation

• In the 20”s – Park boundaries shrink to allow for resource

development– the amount of agricultural land increases by 25%– the amount of land allowed for development of

Ontario and Quebec Hydro increases by 140%

• The commission is dissolved in 1921 - no watchdog (even one without teeth)

SUMMARY OF THE 20’S1 Government watchdogs are reduced

2 Resource oriented businesses expand and lobby for increased access to resources

3 Crown land and national park space is reduced or leased (long term agreements)– Link to Lands for Life in 90’s Ontario

� Pressure (war and recession in this case) produces movement away from protection� The ‘greatest good’ changes

SECOND CONSERVATION MOVEMENT

• The 1930’s produce 2 different pressures

1 Economic Depression• Extreme pressure to broaden the resource base

(employment)• A common perception that this should be monitored• This size of effort should be started and co-

ordinated by government

These people had just sold their tent in order to buy food. Most of the 2,500 people in this camp were destitute. By the end of the decade there were still 4 million migrants on the road.

GOVERNMENT DIRECTION

• Canadian and USA governments encouraged to act

• Agencies to foster soil improvement, soil conservation, water conservation and erosion control

• Similar solutions - large works and employment

AGENCIES

• CANADA• 1935 Prairie Farm

rehabilitation scheme

• USA• 1933 Tennessee

Valley Authority• 1940’s integration of

agencies such as Bureau of Fisheries and Agriculture into US Fish and Wildlife Service

SUMMARY

• Emphasis in N. Am. On economic rationale

• Pragmatic arguments for environmental management– in best interest to avoid calamities or excessive

exploitation– greater cost in the long run by avoiding management

• Humans are members of the environment not conquerors of the land

Emphasis

• In the park system the emphasis swings towards:

• Protection and preservation (success here leads to pressure to ‘harvest’ resources

• Recreational use

40’S AND 50’S• First factor is WWII

– Necessity of production (food and raw materials)

– supply system needs ahead of degradation of the environment

• Boom of the late 40’s and 50’s

PROGRESS?

• Mindset that industrial growth for consumer products is necessary to our well-being– “progress is our most important product”

• Expansion of the system– Trans-Canada Highway (personal automobile)– St Lawrence Seaway– Urban expansion (Niagara fruit belt)– Development of the park system

The start of the Third Conservation Movement

Ecological Ethics

Sustainable Earth

• Major changes in the 70’s

• Policy that all Canadians should have access to a National Park (live withing 500 K of a National Park)

– Response to overuse of present parks

– Desire of a federal government to get credit for a park system during election periods

• Recognition that preservation of ‘unique’ features is not necessarily a sound basis for a unified park system

• The park system should represent and preserve all of Canada’s natural regions.

• 38 National Parks (and National park reserves) currently in the system as the process of expansion starts (2% of Canada)– still 17 parks needed (+1%)

• Still have the quandary

– Use versus protection

Are Parks to be used, maximized in an economic sense

use is linked to ownership – citizens

Or do environmental concerns take priority?