Week 7Oct. 21 Walt Hurley

How Did We Come to Consume Milk?

All About Milk

Why Milk ?II

The band of the Milky Way, including the central region of our galaxy, stretches across the sky with a myriad of stars crossed by dark lanes of dust.

An illustration of the true shape of the Milky Way, with an S-like warp in the outer reaches of the disk.

Where did the term “Milky Way” come from?

RubensTintorettoThe Origin of the Milky Way

The infant Heracles (Hercules) brought to Hera (Juno) who nurses him out of pity.

Heracles sucked so strongly that she pushed him away.

Her milk sprayed across the heavens and formed the Milky Way.

Milk was ubiquitous

Milk was scarce

Milk was familiar

Milk possessed mystical powers

Seasonality of milk availability

Associated with nature

Hindus Egyptians

Greeks

Christians

Sumerians

BabylonianHebrew Mongols

History of Milk Why milk?

Some general observations about the history of milk The ancient world

Perishability of milk

MilkFound everywhere

Knew about milk since they were a baby

Associated with religious activities

Barbaric nomads Civilized cultivators

Pastoral life

Herding goats and sheep

Sedentary

Cultivation of grain crops “culture”

Primitive, unsophisticated,ignorant, uncouth

Advanced social and cultural development

History of Milk Why milk?

Some general observations about the history of milk The ancient world

vs.

Drinking milk

Who was writing the history?

Drinking milk is barbaricDrinking milk is keeping me alive

History of Milk Why milk?

Some general observations about the history of milk

Drinking fluid milk Consuming a milk productvs.

Adding acid Fermentation

Fig juiceStarter culture (lactobacillus)

Vinegar (acetic acid)

Lemon juice (citric acid)

5.05-5.98 pH

2.00-2.60 pH

2.40-3.40 pH

1 mM hydrochloric acid 3.01 pH

1 M hydrochloric acid 0 pH

Soured milk

GheeClarified butter

Made by melting regular butter

Cooked until water is removed and milk solids caramelize

Separates the liquid fats and the milk solids

Skim impurities from the top

Ghee is a milk fat oil

1 tablespoon (14.2 g)

fat

protein

lactose

water

calories

12.8 g

0.04 g

~0 g

~1.36 g

112 kcal

11.52 g

0.12 g

0.01 g

~2.55 g

101.8 kcal

ghee butterPour off the clear liquid fat, leaving the solid residue at the bottom

Ghee can be stored, unopened, in a cool, dark, not-necessarily-refrigerated place for 9 months. Once opened, a jar can be kept on your counter top for 3 months. Beyond that, the open jar can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 1 year.

Butter lasts for about 6-9 months in the refrigerator and if there is a "best by" date stamped on the package then it will last for at least a month beyond that date, that is if it has been stored properly.

Factors impacting the use of milk by ancient humans:

Gestational cycles of animals; seasonal availability

Perishability of milk

Climate and geography

Drink milk

Separated the fat – for cream and butter

Added it to grains to eat

Made cheeses and other fermented products

Heated to make ghee (a clarified butter)

Did ancient man drink milk?

?

How do we know that people consumed dairy products in pre-history?

Mostly by using indirect methods

Evaluation of milk fats from pottery residues

Milk proteins recovered from food residue

Animal bone evidence

Kill-off patterns – assumption that a high rate of slaughter of young animals may indicate that milk was being diverted for human consumption

Analysis to differentiate fat from meat vs milk

Analysis to differentiate milk proteins, their proportions and species source

Cow teeth

Isotopic analyses that suggest calves were weaned early, allow for human use of milk

✓✓✓✓

Domestication

- the adaptation of a plant or animal from a wild or natural state (as by selective breeding) to life in close association with humans

Three types of domesticates: (1) commensals, adapted for companionship (dogs, cats, guinea pigs)(2) prey for food (cows, sheep, pigs, goats, ducks, chickens)(3) those reared for work and nonfood resources such as wool, leather, and transportation (horses,

camels, donkeys, oxen, llamas)

Humans intervened in the natural life cycle of selected animals by managing their living conditions, food supply, and reproduction

- a complicated process that involves genetic changes in a large number of animals that are selectively bred over many generations to intensify certain traits and make others secondary

- the process of hereditary reorganization of wild animals and plants into domestic and cultivated forms according to the interests of people.

Domestication is:

BCE

CE2,000

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

20,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

Wild grains collected and eaten

Cultivation of founder crops (Eastern Mediterranean) Wheats, barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas, flax

Rice domesticated (China)

Pigs domesticated (Mesopotamia)Sheep, goats domesticated (Mesopotamia)

Cattle, yaks domesticated (aurochs)

Sugarcane, root veggies domesticated (New Guinea)

Sorghum domesticated (Sub-Saharan Africa)

Potatoes, beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, guinea

pigs domesticated (South America)Maize domesticated (Mesoamerica); the wheel in useCotton domesticated (Peru)Camels, horses domesticated Intensification of agricultureBronze age

Stone age

Iron age

The Rise of AgricultureDomestication

llamas, alpacas,

guinea pigs domesticated

Ancient GreeceAncient Rome

Ancient Egypt

Dogs domesticated (or maybe earlier)

Reindeer “domesticated”

End of the Last Glacial Period

BC BCE

AD CECommon Eraanno domini,

year of the lord

Before Common EraBefore Christ=

=

Analysis of lipid residues of pottery vessels

Anatolia

Milk Use in Ancient Anatolia

Pottery vessels most likely used for food preparation

C16:0 and C18:0 fatty acids predominate

Strong evidence those are from animal fats

Extensive processing of dairy products

Oldest evidence 6500 BCE

Intensification of milking of ruminant animals

Remote from the origins of domestication of cattle

Fertile Crescent

Was a regional variation in use of dairying and milk use

History of Milk

FertileCrescent

Dairying, cheese making, other fermented milk products would:

- Reduce infant mortalityAllow for earlier weaningDecreasing birth intervalIncreased population

- Provide a stable form of nutrition for adults;Lower lactose content, more palatable for adults and children

- Provide a food source that could counterbalance the risks associated with farming at colder northern latitudes

Mediterranean cheese production 5,200 BCE

Analysis of remnant fats preserved in pottery

History of Milk

Analysis of remnant fats preserved in ceramic vessels

dating to the Early Neolithic (5900-5500 BCE)

best explained by the presence of milk residues

dairying — perhaps of sheep or goats — was initially practiced on a small scale and was part of a broad mixed economy

Ecsegfalva

Schela Cladovei

NISP – number of identifiable specimens

History of Milk

Ghee used for cooking, poured onto bread

Early Mesopotamia (~3000 BCE)

Even used for sealing hulls of boats (~2000 BCE)

Early Sumerian ‘cheese’ (~3000 BCE)

Dried balls of buttermilk (left over after churning butter)

Crushed and could be mixed with water to make ‘instant milk’.

Early History

Milking scene at Al Ubaid from Early Dynastic Sumerian period, ~2600 BCE

History of Milk

Egypt ~1950 BCE

Bulls were exclusively used for the purpose of farming (power).

Cattle farming was popular.

Apart from consuming milk, other dairy products such as curd, whey, and cream were consumed as popular delicacies.

Other livestock such as goats, sheep, and cows were raised for their milk.

The size of the herd represented the prestige of the owner.

Certain dairy products including milk were forbidden in some places, depending on whichever temple people followed.

Ancient EgyptHistory of Milk

1650-1450 BCE

China

1800 BCE

History of Milk

Kazakhstan

Caucasian mummies

Presence of woolen cloths, cattle and goat horns = practiced herding

Yellowish lumps of organic matter

Xiaohe

History of Milk

Proteomic analysis of Xiaohe samples:

Highly enriched for caseins ~100 fold depleted of whey proteins (ß-LG, serum albumin, a-lactalbumin)

Strained, delipidated curd

How was the curd made?

Boiling acidified milk results in precipitation of most all proteins So, not boiled, nor acidified

Rennet (Chymosin) hydrolyzes proteins at points between two specific amino acids No evidence for this

Samples contained proteins from lactic acid bacteria Such as those used to make kefirA light alcoholic carbonated dairy beverage

Samples contained specific yeast and lactic acid bacteria similar to modern self-made kefir

Samples were highly enriched for caseins over whey proteins – curd was probably strained

One sample had characteristics like raw milk with no yeast or lactic acid bacteria proteins

Indicates the kefir production was a genuine dairy practice, and not an artifact of something happening to the milk over thousands of years

Analyzed using tandem mass spectroscopyHistory of Milk

Gumugou Cemetery

Grass woven basket retrieved from tomb

X

Yellowish flaky organic film

Analyzed this material

History of Milk

Presence of Bovidea milk proteins and traces of lactic acid bacteria

Grass woven basket retrieved from tomb

Dried organic film on the inner lining

Evidence suggested presence of strained sour milk

Proteins identified from Bos Taurus and/or Bos mutus [wild yak]

Chymosin-specific proteolytic cleavage of kappa casein not observed

Enriched with caseins, depleted of the major whey proteins

Means rennet coagulation not used

Lactic acid bacteria proteins were found – coagulation by mild acidification

Genetic evidence that Gumugou inhabitants had ancestry from Europe (more lactose tolerant) – indicates an European migration to the east

History of Milk

CalculusDentalCaused by:

Precipitation of mineral from saliva and gingival fluids

This precipitation kills bacteria, provides a rough surface for further plaque formation

Calculus buildup compromises health of the gums (gingivitis)

Associated with bad breath, receding gums, chronically inflamed gingiva

Calculus is too hard to be removed by a toothbrush

Need ultrasonic tools or dental hard instruments to remove it

Also is a long-term reservoir of dietary biomolecules and microfossils

Calculus

Humans do not produce ß-LGß-Lactoglobulin as a biomarker

ß-LG is present only in milk

ß-LG is more resistant to degradation and microbial proteolysis than other milk proteins

Over half of the amino acid residues in ß-LG are variable among dairy animals

Can identify the genus and species of the animal producing the milk

ß-LG partitions with whey during milk processing – indication of lactose-rich food

ß-LG can be directly identified from protein sequence data

Use mass spectrometry to analyze peptide sequences from mixtures of proteins

Samples from dental calculi from teeth of ancient people

ß-LactoglobulinFound in milk of Artiodactyla Cow, sheep, goat, pig, horse, others

50% of whey proteinAccounts for: 10% of total milk protein

Proportion of dental samples positive for ß-LG peptides

Frequency of lactase persistence allele

High

Moderate

Low

Very low

Direct evidence of consumption of ß-LG from cows, sheep, goat, and other ruminant species

Positive samples as old as 3000-1500 BCE

That is 3500 to 5000 years ago

History of Milk

Vedic India

1500 – 500 BCE

Northern Indian subcontinent

Wealth = ownership of cattle Cattle were for producing milk

Hymn to the god Indra: “the great Cow may, with exhaustless udder, pouring a thousand streams, give milk to feed us.”

Consumed as dairy products:

Also, consumed warm as it came from the cow

Boiled milk, cream, sour curds, sour cream, curdled milk, butter, ghee, clotted curds, clotted whey

Also, used in religious rituals

Did not seem to make hard cheeses (rennet cheeses)

History of Milk

Baby Bottles and Milk Use

Infant feeding vesselsSmall and delicate, with a small spout

some date back to 5500-4800 BCE

These were found in children’s graves

Analysis of lipids showed some vessels were used to feed milk to infants

800-450 BCE

Perhaps processed the milk (acid?) in the vessel before feeding it to the infant

Perhaps used as supplementary to mother’s breast milk Extended Data Fig. 2 | Modern-day baby feeding from reconstructed infant-feeding vessel of the type investigated in this study.

History of Milk

Ancient EuropeEarliest references in Homer’s Iliad (~700 BCE) Grated cheese of goat’s milk

Milk curdled with vegetable ‘rennet’ – fig juice

History of Milk

Homer’s The Odyssey (~750 BCE)

Then down he squatted to milk his sheep and bleating goatsEach in order, and put a suckling underneath each dam.And half of the fresh white milk he curdled quickly,Set it aside in whicker racks to press cheese,The other half let stand in pails and buckets,Ready at hand to wash his supper down.

Odysseus observes of the Cyclops, a herdsman:

‘Polyphemus guarding his flock’

The Cyclops was considered uncivilized

Milk-drinking pastoralists considered to be idle and ignorant

Outside of RomeCaesar on the Gauls – they were not interested in agriculture: their diet consists of milk, cheese and meat

Caesar on the Britons – most tribes living in the interior do not grow corn; they live on milk and meat and wear skins

Early medieval Ireland – wealth = cows and milk

Dairy products – drunk fresh or thickened with rennet, soft cheeses and hard cheesesAlso, separated cream Resulting skim was considered penitential foodButter was a high status food

Roman writers suggest the best rennet is from lambs and kids (baby goats), or hare and kids, or calves

After adding rennet, milk is heated, allowed to coagulate, then put in wicker vessels or baskets to drain off the wheyWeights were put on top to help press the curdsCurds were salted, put in a cool place or 9 days, then washed with water, then set in the shade for partial drying

Cheeses were exported and imported (from as far away as Gaul)

Rome is said to have eaten Italian cheese from Liguria, Umbria, Tuscany, Latium.Soft cheeses had to be sold quickly while still fresh

Romans did not seem to drink fresh milk

History of Milk

Scythians

Nomadic tribes 7th thru 3rd centuries BCEconsidered barbarians

Drank milk from horses Mixed with blood from their victims in combat

thrust tubes made of bone ….. up the vulva of the mare, and then ….. Blow into the tubes with their mouths, some milking while the others blow. They say that they do this because when the veins of the animal are full of air, the udder is forced down. The milk thus obtained is poured into deep wooden casks, about which blind slaves are placed and then the milk is stirred round. That which rises to the top is drawn off, and considered the best part, the under portion is of less account

According to Herodotus, ancient Greek historian (~450 BCE):

The Scythians:

Little Ice Age onset ~1250 CE

occupied 985-1250 CE

occupied ~1160-1400 CE

Tjodhildes Church

Sandnaes

Very weak evidence of ß-LG consumption

in 1 individual

Strong evidence of ß-LG consumption in

2 individuals

Tjodhildes Church

Switch from heavy dairy based economy to reliance on

marine mammals

Norse settlements in Greenland

Fluid milk was not a major part of consumption of dairy products1739 – an Edinburgh orphanage

Children were allowed “a mere fifth of a pint (of milk) a week compared with six pints of ale.”

Mostly made cheese and butterWhey and buttermilk mostly used to feed other animals

Northern Europeans and their Early American descendants

In America – 1 pig was kept for every 4 cowsPeople consumed “clabbered” milk

Produced by allowing unpasteurized milk to turn sour at a specific humidity and temperature. Over time, the milk thickens or curdles into a yogurt-like substance with a strong, sour flavor.

Clabber

History of Milk Use

1700’s

Consumption of fluid milk was still very minorMost milk was preserved or fermented - cheese, sour milk, yogurtMost consumption of fluid milk was probably fermented buttermilk

Early to mid-1800’s

The central beverage for the 18th and early 19th century American - Apple cider, not milkFarmers made 25-50 barrels of cider 1767 per capita cider consumption for Massachusetts was 1.14 barrels

Was a desire for breast milk substitutes and a beverage for weaned children

Cities were growing rapidly1840’s New York City

A large proportion of NYC children were consuming milk

Need to provide food sources for the growing city population

Especially Manhattan (an island)

Death rate in the first year – 15-20%

Causes: Lack of urban sanitary infrastructure High poverty Lower breast feeding rates Overcrowding

Cholera, typhoid and tuberculosis were especially common Diarrhea leading to dehydration and death

Sweet, fresh milk consumption was a significant contributor to the child mortality

Crossed classes, socioeconomic boundaries

History of Milk Use

Losing an infant was very commonInfant mortality was on the rise

In 1841, half of all children under the age of five in New York City died, many from intestinal infections

In 1891, bad milk was directly linked to 23 % of the deaths in children under three in New York City. This was especially so in the impoverished, overcrowded and often fetid environment of the Lower East Side.

Swill Milk Dairy Barns

A diet of brewer’s grain only was not conducive to cow health

Mid-1800’s

By the 1840s, New York City's 500 dairies housed half the cows in the city.

Distilleries used massive amounts of wheat - soaking, fermenting, and extracting alcohol from thousands of bushels a day.

An editorial cartoon in Harper's Weekly depicts the deadly consequences of swill milk. (August 17, 1878 / HathiTrust)

Some distilleries housed cows in buildings next to their main buildings, piping in hot swill to large numbers of cows.

To maximize their profits, distilleries began using the leftover byproduct - swill - to feed cows that they housed nearby.

The other cows were kept in shanty areas near distilleries where they were used to produce swill milk.

History of Milk Use

Milk from swill cows was thin; fat content to low to make butter; “had an unnatural, bluish tint," so sellers added flour, starch, or plaster of Paris to make it thick and appear white.

The swill itself was made up of boiling liquid and discarded grain, which was off-putting to the cows until they became so hungry that they at the slop. They ate over 30 gallons of swill per day, producing more milk than their grass-fed counterparts but at a much lower quality. The swill held no nutritional value for the cows, causing their health to fail.

Conditions for the cows were cramped and unclean in buildings set up by distilleries. Cows lived in their own excrement, covered in bugs, and in ill-health. Many of the cows became so weak from poor nutrition that their teeth or tails fell off, they often had sores on their bodies, and developed ulcerated lungs.

Swill Cows, Swill Milk History of Milk Use

Swill milk sellers called their product “Pure Country Milk” to assure buyers of its quality. It was intentionally misrepresented because consumers were so used to getting milk from the country. At times, it was branded using rural-county sounding names like “Orange County Milk” just to keep up appearances.

The Cows

Their Diet

The Milk

Marketing the Milk

a) Sick cow being hoisted for milking, b) Milk wagons for the transport of swill milk. Both figures from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1858.

On July 4, 1850, Taylor reportedly consumed copious amounts of raw fruit and iced milk while attending holiday celebrations during a fund-raising event at the Washington Monument, which was then under construction. Over the course of several days, he became severely ill with an unknown digestive ailment. His doctor "diagnosed the illness as cholera morbus, a flexible mid-nineteenth-century term for intestinal ailments as diverse as diarrhea and dysentery but not related to Asiatic cholera", the latter being a widespread epidemic at the time of Taylor's death. The identity and source of Taylor's illness are the subject of historical speculation, although it is known that several of his cabinet members had come down with a similar illness. (Wikipedia)

Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850)

12th president of the United States

from March 1849 until his death in July 1850

Any potential for recovery was overwhelmed by his doctors, who treated him with “ipecac, calomel, opium, and quinine” at 40 grains per dose (approximately 2.6 grams), and "bled and blistered him too."

History of Milk Use

The Swill Milk Scandal of 1858

In 1857, over 8,000 infants died as a result of drinking swill milk.

The cows were kept in horrible conditions and ultimately produced milk full of runoff and bacteria.

Sold cheap and marketed as pure, swill milk wasn't banned until almost a decade later.

However, the scandal did create an awareness of food safety in the United States.

Most did not have much choice; swill milk was the only affordable option.

Because there were so many other diseases in the city, it took time for people to realize what was happening.

Mid-1800’s

50 to 80% of the milk consumed in northeastern cities was swill milk.

When children began dying from drinking swill milk, there was little reason to believe that anything was different from the status quo.

Most weren't even aware the incidents were happening because of the milk, as all of the other mortality causes seemed like valid explanations.

History of Milk Use

Milk Adulteration

History of Milk Use

many adulterants have been used as additives to milk

Water – increases milk volume, dilutes the nutrient content of milk

Still tested for addition of water today

Formaldehyde was a favored option in the 1800’s kills contaminating microorganisms

“Preservaline” was a product sold for that purposeCould prevent curdling for days when added to fresh milk

Clusters of child deaths in various cities in the late 1890s turned public attention to what was being put into milk.

Melamine a trimer of cyanamide

Its derivatives have fire retardant properties due to its release of nitrogen gas when burned

contains 67% nitrogen by mass (C3H6N6)

When added to milk or other foods it raises the apparent protein level

2008 China scandal – added to milk and infant formula; 300,000 victims, 6 babies died, 54,000 babies hospitalized

Dirty water only further contaminates the milk

Concepts pushed by reformers:Milk was universal, complete, of great importance to man

Milk was a danger as produced under the swill milk system

Degraded milk vs perfected cow’s milk

Degraded milk (swill milk) was an important public health hazard

“Perfected” cow’s milk was the answer to health problems

Linkage of distilleries (alcohol and its evils) with the dangerous milk supply

Railroad transport into New York City was limited even through the 1850’s

Development of the railroad infrastructure increased the availability of “country” milk

Just the first of many linkages among industry, science, technology and milk drinking

Even with new rail lines, the 1850’s still saw 70% of New York City’s milk coming from swill barns

[with significant religious undertones, even overtones]

1856 – the first law regulating milk, passed by the Brooklyn Common Council – restricted the number of cows on a city lot

Distillers quickly had their operations exempted from the regulation

Earliest reformers emerged from the city’s temperance and mission societiesMid-1800’s

History of Milk Use

William Prout (British chemist), 1834, on milk:

“Being a natural compound of albumen, oil and sugar, which constitute the three great staminal principles that are essential to the support of animal life, it is a model of what a nutritious substance out to be, and the most perfect of all elementary aliments. Such being its characteristics, it possesses both animal and vegetable properties, and naturally takes its place at the head of nutrient substances.”

Early nutrition researchers were recognizing the nutritional value of milk

History of Milk Use

Figure 2. 1914 Chicago Department of Health poster depicting Illinois beset by tuberculosis- positive cattle (source: Chicago Department of Health, 1914).

Milk and TB

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the major cause of TB in the US.

M. bovis is most commonly found in cattle and other animals such as bison, elk, and deer; uninfected cattle that come into contact with these wild animals can become infected.

Can affect the lungs, lymph nodes, and other parts of the body.

M. bovis causes less than 2% of all TB cases of TB disease in the US today.

People are most commonly infected with M. bovis by eating or drinking contaminated, unpasteurized dairy products.

Cattle outside the United States, particularly in developing countries, might not have the same level of inspection for M. bovis infection.

The Cooperative State-Federal Tuberculosis Eradication Program (includes the USDA, state animal health agencies, and U.S. livestock producers, has nearly eliminated M. bovis infection from cattle in the US.

However, bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) is a significant threat especially to children who consume infected milk and meat.

1900 – 15% of TB in the US cases were caused by dairy products.

Pasteurization kills the M. bovis.

Heating foods for preservation (CE)

1117 China - heating wine for preservation

1478-1618 Japan – monks wrote about the Chinese heating of wine for preservation

1768 Italy – Lazzaro Spallanzani, priest & scientist

Boiled meat broth for 1 hr, sealed the container, noted it did not spoil

1795 Paris – Nicolas Appert, chef & confectioner

Experimented with ways to preserve foods

Put food in glass jars, sealed with a cork and wax, placed in boiling water.Succeeded with soups, vegetables, juices, dairy products, jellies, jams, syrups

Developed the first food-bottling factory, products included meats, eggs, milk and prepared dishes

Time product was exposed to boiling water was subjective, determined by Appert

1810 Britain – Peter Durand, inventor and merchant

Patented similar method using tin cans

Problem – needed hammer and chisel to open tin cans, until invention of can opener in 1855

1864 Louis Pasteur, considered the father of the germ theory of disease

Wanted to preserve local wines while he was on holiday

Experimentally found that heating a young wine to 122-140 F for a short time killed microbes

Originally, pasteurization was used to prevent wine and beer from souring

In the US in the 1870’s, it was common to add substances to milk to mask spoilage

1910 Mandatory pasteurization of milk introduced in New York City

1912 Milton Rosenau established the standards for pasteurization of milkSlow heating at 60 C (140 F), 20 minutes

1947 First state laws on mandatory milk pasteurization

1973 Federal law requiring pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce

Heating foods for preservation

1924 The first Standard Milk Ordinance, a model for voluntary adoption by state and local Milk Control Agencies

1888 Gerber and Wieske pasteurized milk in bottles (65 C for 1 hour); many others were testing time-temperature relationships to kill bacteria, especially M. tuberculosis

Milk Stations; New York City

Nathan StrausCo-owner of Macy’s

During depression years of 1892-1893

Built his own pasteurization plantOpened 18 milk stations in the citySold “sterilized” milk for only a few cents, or gave it awayOthers followed the example, more stations openedWere able to show that childhood mortality rates were drastically lowerEventually sale of raw milk was banned

Milk Use History

Summary of Vital Statistics from 1800 to 1950, Summary of Vital Statistics of the City of New York, 1958-65, Augustus C. Long Health Sciences Library, Columbia University.

New York City area population and milk and cream receipts at the New York Market

Adapted from: M.P. Catherwood, 1931. A Statistical Study of Milk Production for the New York Market, Bulletin 518. Ithaca: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station

As with any new technology, pasteurization of milk was not immediately embraced

By milk producers By milk processers By local governments responsible for public health

For example,The first high temperature short time pasteurization standards were included in the 1933 US Public Health Milk Ordinance and Code

Nevertheless, even by 1938 milk-born diseases were responsible for 25% of all illnesses associated with infected food and contaminated water.

Considerable research was conducted on the most effective pasteurization methods

Late 1800’s thru the mid 1900’s

Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the primary organism of interest

Other dairy product pathogens of concern:

SalmonellaListeria monocytogenesBacillus cereusBrucella abortusBrucella sp

Campylobacter jejuniCoxiella brunetiiYersinia enterocoliticaEscherichia coliStaphylococcus aureus

MAP OF CINCINNATI MILK SHED SHOWING ROUTES AND MILEAGE ZONESHenry Trumbower, "Transportation of Milk by Motor Truck," from Public Roads: a Journal of Highway Research, July, 1924

Milk Sheds

The year 1914 marked the beginning of the transportation of milk by motor truck to the Cincinnati market.

By 1918 nearly 50 per cent of the daily shipments were by motor truck and the wagon shipments had practically ceased.

Milk Sheds

Figure 3. The New York milkshed in 1925. Dots represent milk plants serving New York City in 1925 (source: Norton and Spencer, 1925).

Farms in the major milksheds of the northeast US, 1962. Each dot is 10 farms.

Milk Sheds

Figure 1. The Chicago milkshed, 1918 (source: Chicago Department of Health Report, 1919, page 902).

Farms in the major milksheds of the western portion of the middle western US, 1962. Each dot is 10 farms.

Milksheds in the U.S. indicate where most of the nation’s milk supply is produced and collected.

International milksheds show where most of the world’s milk is produced and collected.

US Milk Markets

Some reliable truths about how dairy products are made and consumed:

Overall the industry is quite unpredictable

Seasonality

Peak milk production in May declines during summer months lowest in late October, early November

Weather, climate

Extended heat waves wide-spread flooding major snowstorms

Can impact herds, destroy crops affect production in the short and long term

Regional production problems

Droughts or extended heat waves – cows produce less milk

Snow storms or other significant weather events can halt milk transport

Consumption trendsMuch more ice cream consumption in summer

Per capita butter consumption twice as high in November and December than rest of the year

Fluid milk consumption dramatically increases during traditional school year

Demand for cheese destined for pizza spikes during the college semesters

Demand for sliced cheese for burgers surges in summer months (grilling)

Federal Milk Marketing Orders set minimum fluid milk prices based on the region the milk came from and what its end use will be. Areas not highlighted in this map are either covered by state orders —which work in much the same way as federal orders— or are not regulated.

Milk Markets

Developed by Anna Britt Agnsäter

Kooperativa Förbundet (Swedish Co-operative Union- a retail/grocery co-operative)

“Good wholesome food at reasonable prices“

First Food Pyramid 1972

Heavily biased by food industry lobbying

Food Pyramid 1992

USDA nutritionists had recommended:

a base of 5-9 servings of fresh fruits and vegetables a day

3-4 daily servings of whole-grain breads and cereals

milk was separated out from meat, poultry, etc

Grade ”A” Pasteurized Milk Ordinance

Regulation of Milk Production, Processing and Marketing

Grade ”A” PMO

U.S. Department of Health and Human ServicesPublic Health Service

Food and Drug Administration

First one: from Public Health Reports of November 7, 1924.

2017 Revision incorporates the provisions governing the processing, packaging, and sale of Grade “A” milk and milk products, including buttermilk and buttermilk products, whey and whey products, and condensed and dry milk products.

Milk is one of the most, if not the most highly regulated food

Grade ”A” PMO

USPHS/FDA

Excerpt from table of contents, 2017

ITEM 7r. TOILET

Every dairy farm shall be provided with one (1) or more toilets; conveniently located; properly constructed; operated; and maintained in a sanitary manner. The waste shall be inaccessible to insects and shall not pollute the soil surface or contaminate any water supply.

PUBLIC HEALTH REASON The organisms of typhoid fever, dysentery and gastrointestinal disorders may be present in the body wastes of persons who have these diseases. In the case of typhoid fever, well persons (carriers) also may discharge the organisms in their body wastes. If a toilet is not fly-tight and so constructed as to prevent overflow, infection may be carried from the excreta to the milk, either by flies or through the pollution of ground water supplies or streams to which the lactating animals have access.

ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES

This Item is deemed to be satisfied when: 1. There is at least one (1) flush toilet connected to a public sewer system, or to an individual sewage-disposal system, or a chemical toilet, earth pit privy or other type of privy. Such sewage systems shall be constructed and operated in accordance with the standards outlined in Appendix C. of this Ordinance, or when a Regulatory Agency has more effective standards designed specifically for that region, these standards may apply, provided, there is not any mixing of animal and human waste. 2. A toilet or privy is convenient to the milking barn and the milkhouse. There shall be no evidence of human defecation or urination about the premises.3. No privy opens directly into the milkhouse. 4. The toilet room, including all fixtures and facilities, is kept clean and free of insects and odors.5. Where flush toilets are used, doors to toilet rooms are tight and self-closing. All outer openings in toilet rooms shall be screened or otherwise protected against the entrance of insects. 6. Vents of earth pits are screened.

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