Why You Should Make Smart Flashcards

Mark Mitchell & Janina Jolley, 2014Clarion University of Pennsylvaniamitchell@clarion.edujolley@clarion.edu

How Can You Learn a Concept?

Three Models of Concept Learning

Key Attributes Model

Prototype (Best Example)

ModelExemplar

Model

Learn concepts by

learning their defining

characteristics.

Knowing the key elements

of the concept’s definition.

1. Learn the Key Attributes

Example of Learning Attributes

Key Attributes Model

• Know the key elements of the definition.

Example of Negative Reinforcement• Definition: Negative

reinforcement occurs when a behavior is increased by taking away an aversive stimulus.

• Key Elements 1. It must increase behavior 2. It must involve taking away an

aversive stimulus.

Problem With Learning Key Attributes

Identifying the key elements means thinking in abstract ways that are removed from reality.

We typically think in more concrete ways by using real world examples.

Love Love

How Can You Learn a Concept?

Three models of concept learning

• 1.Key Attributes Model• 2. Prototype (Best Example) Model• 3. Exemplar Model

2. Learn Prototypes

Learn a concept by learning a “best example” of it.

• Best =• Common• Typical

Example of Using Prototypes

Prototype Model

• Learn a concept by learning a “best example” of it.

Sources of Examples – Class Lectures– Textbook

Example

“Negative reinforcement occurs when a parent hears crying until the parent holds the baby and so the parent is constantly holding the baby.”

Problem With Learning Prototypes

Concepts are too general to have one example that captures the concept.

For example, no one dog is a perfect example of the concept “dog.”

How Can You Learn a Concept?

Three models of concept learning

• 1.Key Attributes Model• 2. Prototype (Best Example) Model• 3. Exemplar Model

3. Learn exemplars

You learn a concept by learning many examples of that concept.

Example of Exemplar Model

Exemplar Model

• You learn a concept by learning many examples of that concept.

Common Source for Model

– Observation – you have seen many examples.

ExampleBecause you have seen so many examples of dogs, you know what a dog is, and you can recognize many kinds of dogs as dogs–even if you don’t have a definition of “dog” memorized.

Two Problems With Learning from Exemplars

1. For all the concepts you need to learn in a course, will you be able to study enough examples to cover each concept?

2. From examples alone, will you be able to figure out the key features of a concept?

POSITIVE

REINFORCEMENT

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

POSITIVE

PUNISHMENT

SCHEDULES OF

REINFORCEMENT

FIXED SCHEDULE

VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE

?

Review: Models of Concept Learning and Their Implications for Studying

Model Study by

Key Attributes Memorizing the concept’s defining characteristics (know its definition).

Prototype Memorizing a typical, characteristic example of the concept.

Exemplar Memorizing several varied examples.

Overgeneralizing: A Big Problem in Concept Formation

Even when learning a concept from definitions, prototypes, and exemplars, people often fail to see how that concept differs from related concepts. For example, young children often call horses

“doggies” because horses, like dogs, have four legs. This kind of overgeneralization is called an overextension error.*

Dog?

Overextension Errors

Overextension errors are likely when a word is used one way in ordinary language, but has a more specific meaning in a specific field.

Meaning in psychology Common meaning

Random Due to chance—free from systematic bias.

Arbitrary – based on a whim that may reflect systematic bias.

Experiment A study that usually uses random assignment to disentangle treatment effects from natural differences between groups.

Any type of study.

How Can You Avoid Overextension Errors?

• It is not enough to learn from positive instances: examples of what the concept is.

• You must also learn from negative instances: examples of what the concept is not.

How Can You Avoid Overextension Errors?

– Getting feedback about negative instances (“that’s not a doggie, that’s a horse”) helps people avoid the overextension error.

“Doggie”

Conclusions Based on Theory and Research on Concept Learning for Making Flashcards

To put new information into your head, you need cards that will help you

1. Have a meaningful definition of the term;2. Have relevant, representative, varied,

visual, and meaningful examples of the term; and

3. Avoid overextension errors.

Designing Flashcards That Help You Learn Concepts

Strategy Helps you to learn Particularly useful for questions that ask you

Make “Definition cards” that break down definitions into their key parts.

defining features of the concept

to recognize the correct definition of a concept or to understand the definition of the concept

Make “Examples” cards that give you a typical example and a variety of examples that fit the definition.

Prototypes and exemplars of the concept

to apply the concept

Add notes to cards that help you tell the difference between the concept and related concepts.

to avoid overextension errors

to distinguish the concept from related concepts (most multiple-choice questions)

Example and Elements of an Intelligent Definition Flashcard

Negative reinforcement

(2)Definition{Positive

punishment}

occurs when a ____________ (1) behavior is increased by__ (2) taking away an aversive__ stimulus._____ ___________ ________________________“aversive”means unpleasant. ________________________________________________

Front Back

To avoid ignoring key parts of the definition, definition’s elements are underlined and numbered.

Words and terms that are not understood are defined.

Number of definition’s key elements you should recall.

Term you should not confuse with your term.

Example of What Might Be Added to the Back of a Definition Card

Text definition: “Occurs when a (1) behavior is increased by_____ (2) taking away an aversive stimulus after the undesired behavior occurs.”_______________________________________________Warning: I confuse positive punishment with negative reinforcement. They are similar in that both are ways of altering behavior through the use of aversive stimuli._____________________They are different because negative (-)_reinforcement increases (reinforces) behavior by taking away (-) an aversive stimulus after the desired behavior occurs whereas positive (+) punishment decreases behavior by adding (+) an aversive stimulus after the undesired behavior has occurred.__

An Example of an Examples Card

BackFront

Negative reinforcement

Examples

Text/professor example: (2) A baby cries until Mom picks it up. ________ (1)Mom picks it up to stop the crying. ______________________________ ______________________________My example: (2) My dog whines until I start scratching her ears, so (1) I ___scratch her ears more than I used to because I want to stop the whining. ______________________________

Two examples

The key elements from the definition card have been matched to each example and those elements have been underlined and numbered.

What Could Be Added to An Examples Card

Terms Negative reinforcement Positive Punishment

Difference 1: Their effects

Increases behavior. Decreases behavior.

Difference 2:Timing of unpleasant event

Unpleasantness occurs before desired behavior.

Unpleasantness starts after undesired behavior

Example Ex: Parent yells before and until child starts cleaning up room so child starts cleaning up room

Ex: Parent yells after child writes on walls so child stops writing on walls.

Final Thoughts Learning concepts is difficult because a concept can’t

be captured by a single example and because you will tend to confuse concepts that sound similar of have similar meanings.

You will tend to think you know a concept when you don’t. This may lead to you being surprised on tests.

Designing your flashcards can help you learn terms. To learn how to make flashcards that will help you

learn terms, see our powerpoint presentation: “Making Flashcards.”

ReferencesAppleby, D. C. (2013). A flashcard strategy to help students prepare for three types of multiple choice questions commonly found on introductory psychology tests. Retrieved from http://teachpsych.org/Resources/ Documents/otrp/resources/appleby13flashcard.pdf

Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., III, McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make it stick: The science of successful learning. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. Young, S. (2010). Learn more, study less! Publisher: Author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Dr. Jeanne Slattery, Dr. Jamie Phillips, Mr. Ryan Devlin, and Dr. Scott Kuehn for their insightful comments on earlier versions of this presentation.