WILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THE NATIONALPARKS:

An Educational PrAn Educational PrAn Educational PrAn Educational PrAn Educational Program Guide to Listeningogram Guide to Listeningogram Guide to Listeningogram Guide to Listeningogram Guide to Listeningand Recorand Recorand Recorand Recorand Recordingdingdingdingding

Bernard L. Krause, Ph.D.P. O. Box 536Glen Ellen, CA 95442707-996-6677Email:Chirp@wildsanctuary.comOctober, 2002

WILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THEWILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THEWILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THEWILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THEWILD SOUNDSCAPES IN THENANANANANATIONALTIONALTIONALTIONALTIONAL P P P P PARKSARKSARKSARKSARKS

An Educational Program Guide to Listening andAn Educational Program Guide to Listening andAn Educational Program Guide to Listening andAn Educational Program Guide to Listening andAn Educational Program Guide to Listening andRecordingRecordingRecordingRecordingRecording

A guidebook of Education Programs Dr. Bernie Krause, Wild Sanctuary, Inc., Glen Ellen, California, 95442

Table of ContentsI. Introduction to Natural SoundscapesI. Introduction to Natural SoundscapesI. Introduction to Natural SoundscapesI. Introduction to Natural SoundscapesI. Introduction to Natural Soundscapes .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 66666

Background and historyBackground and historyBackground and historyBackground and historyBackground and history ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 66666Natural soundscape is nature’s voiceNatural soundscape is nature’s voiceNatural soundscape is nature’s voiceNatural soundscape is nature’s voiceNatural soundscape is nature’s voice .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 77777

II. Education and Natural SoundscapesII. Education and Natural SoundscapesII. Education and Natural SoundscapesII. Education and Natural SoundscapesII. Education and Natural Soundscapes ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 88888Background and historyBackground and historyBackground and historyBackground and historyBackground and history ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 88888The nature of soundThe nature of soundThe nature of soundThe nature of soundThe nature of sound ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 88888A soundscape is the voice of a placeA soundscape is the voice of a placeA soundscape is the voice of a placeA soundscape is the voice of a placeA soundscape is the voice of a place ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 88888TTTTTies to our evolutionary pasties to our evolutionary pasties to our evolutionary pasties to our evolutionary pasties to our evolutionary past .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 99999Science of natural soundScience of natural soundScience of natural soundScience of natural soundScience of natural sound ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99999BiophonyBiophonyBiophonyBiophonyBiophony .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1111111111Biophonic dating.Biophonic dating.Biophonic dating.Biophonic dating.Biophonic dating. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1313131313Determining habitat healthDetermining habitat healthDetermining habitat healthDetermining habitat healthDetermining habitat health ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 1313131313

III. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes to VIII. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes to VIII. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes to VIII. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes to VIII. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes to Visitorsisitorsisitorsisitorsisitors ......................................................................................................... 1515151515Healthy ecosystemsHealthy ecosystemsHealthy ecosystemsHealthy ecosystemsHealthy ecosystems .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 1616161616Cultural and Social Implications to Humans.Cultural and Social Implications to Humans.Cultural and Social Implications to Humans.Cultural and Social Implications to Humans.Cultural and Social Implications to Humans. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1616161616

IVIVIVIVIV. Interpr. Interpr. Interpr. Interpr. Interpretive Themes and Natural Soundscapesetive Themes and Natural Soundscapesetive Themes and Natural Soundscapesetive Themes and Natural Soundscapesetive Themes and Natural Soundscapes ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1818181818

VVVVV. Pr. Pr. Pr. Pr. Programs and ograms and ograms and ograms and ograms and Activity SitesActivity SitesActivity SitesActivity SitesActivity Sites .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2020202020Program Name: The Nature of SoundProgram Name: The Nature of SoundProgram Name: The Nature of SoundProgram Name: The Nature of SoundProgram Name: The Nature of Sound .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2020202020

Theme:Theme:Theme:Theme:Theme: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2020202020Goals:Goals:Goals:Goals:Goals: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2020202020Objectives:Objectives:Objectives:Objectives:Objectives: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2020202020Logistics:Logistics:Logistics:Logistics:Logistics: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2020202020Materials:Materials:Materials:Materials:Materials: ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2121212121Reference Materials:Reference Materials:Reference Materials:Reference Materials:Reference Materials: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2121212121

Program History:Program History:Program History:Program History:Program History: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2121212121Program 1. Locating Quiet Natural SoundscapesProgram 1. Locating Quiet Natural SoundscapesProgram 1. Locating Quiet Natural SoundscapesProgram 1. Locating Quiet Natural SoundscapesProgram 1. Locating Quiet Natural Soundscapes ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2121212121

A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2121212121B. B. B. B. B. Activities:Activities:Activities:Activities:Activities: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2121212121C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2222222222D. D. D. D. D. Activity site(s):Activity site(s):Activity site(s):Activity site(s):Activity site(s): ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 2222222222

Program 2. Identifying and comparing “natural sound” and “noise”Program 2. Identifying and comparing “natural sound” and “noise”Program 2. Identifying and comparing “natural sound” and “noise”Program 2. Identifying and comparing “natural sound” and “noise”Program 2. Identifying and comparing “natural sound” and “noise” ................................... 2323232323A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2323232323B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2323232323C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2323232323D. D. D. D. D. Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2323232323

Program 3. Identifying Sources of Natural SoundscapesProgram 3. Identifying Sources of Natural SoundscapesProgram 3. Identifying Sources of Natural SoundscapesProgram 3. Identifying Sources of Natural SoundscapesProgram 3. Identifying Sources of Natural Soundscapes ........................................................................................................................................................... 2525252525A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2525252525B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2525252525C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2525252525D. D. D. D. D. Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2525252525

PrPrPrPrProgram 4. Defining Habitat Togram 4. Defining Habitat Togram 4. Defining Habitat Togram 4. Defining Habitat Togram 4. Defining Habitat Territory by Natural Soundscapeserritory by Natural Soundscapeserritory by Natural Soundscapeserritory by Natural Soundscapeserritory by Natural Soundscapes ..................................................................................... 2626262626A. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to ask ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2626262626B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2626262626C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed.C. Equipment needed. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2626262626D. D. D. D. D. Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2626262626

PrPrPrPrProgram 5 Defining Togram 5 Defining Togram 5 Defining Togram 5 Defining Togram 5 Defining Temporal emporal emporal emporal emporal Aspects of Natural SoundscapesAspects of Natural SoundscapesAspects of Natural SoundscapesAspects of Natural SoundscapesAspects of Natural Soundscapes ..................................................................................... 2828282828A. Question to askA. Question to askA. Question to askA. Question to askA. Question to ask ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2828282828B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2828282828C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed:C. Equipment needed: ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2828282828D. D. D. D. D. Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2828282828

Program 6. Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural SoundscapesProgram 6. Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural SoundscapesProgram 6. Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural SoundscapesProgram 6. Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural SoundscapesProgram 6. Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural Soundscapes 2929292929A. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to askA. Questions to ask ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2929292929B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 2929292929C. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment needed................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2929292929D. D. D. D. D. Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s)Activity site(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2929292929

PrPrPrPrProgram 7. Togram 7. Togram 7. Togram 7. Togram 7. Tools for enhancing and rools for enhancing and rools for enhancing and rools for enhancing and rools for enhancing and recorecorecorecorecording natural sounds.ding natural sounds.ding natural sounds.ding natural sounds.ding natural sounds. ..................................................................................... 3333333333A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask:A. Questions to ask: ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3333333333B. B. B. B. B. ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3333333333C. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment neededC. Equipment needed................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3333333333D. D. D. D. D. Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s)Activity Site(s) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3434343434

VI. Use of Natural Sounds in VVI. Use of Natural Sounds in VVI. Use of Natural Sounds in VVI. Use of Natural Sounds in VVI. Use of Natural Sounds in Visitor Center Prisitor Center Prisitor Center Prisitor Center Prisitor Center Programsogramsogramsogramsograms ............................................................................................................................. 3535353535Interpretive.Interpretive.Interpretive.Interpretive.Interpretive. ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3535353535Mixing programs for exhibit performance, presentation, CDs or mixedMixing programs for exhibit performance, presentation, CDs or mixedMixing programs for exhibit performance, presentation, CDs or mixedMixing programs for exhibit performance, presentation, CDs or mixedMixing programs for exhibit performance, presentation, CDs or mixed

media.media.media.media.media. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3737373737(1) Formats.(1) Formats.(1) Formats.(1) Formats.(1) Formats. .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3737373737(2) Production.(2) Production.(2) Production.(2) Production.(2) Production. ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3737373737

Levels of expertise.Levels of expertise.Levels of expertise.Levels of expertise.Levels of expertise. ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3838383838WWWWWeb site audio.eb site audio.eb site audio.eb site audio.eb site audio. ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3939393939

VII. ConclusionVII. ConclusionVII. ConclusionVII. ConclusionVII. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4040404040

Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix AAAAA - Equipment - Equipment - Equipment - Equipment - Equipment.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4141414141BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4141414141RecordersRecordersRecordersRecordersRecorders ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 4242424242

AnalogAnalogAnalogAnalogAnalog ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4242424242DigitalDigitalDigitalDigitalDigital .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4343434343

TTTTTypes of micrypes of micrypes of micrypes of micrypes of microphonesophonesophonesophonesophones .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4646464646MonauralMonauralMonauralMonauralMonaural ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4646464646StereoStereoStereoStereoStereo ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4646464646HydrophonesHydrophonesHydrophonesHydrophonesHydrophones................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4848484848Parabolic dishesParabolic dishesParabolic dishesParabolic dishesParabolic dishes ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4949494949

Appendix B - Field TAppendix B - Field TAppendix B - Field TAppendix B - Field TAppendix B - Field Techniquesechniquesechniquesechniquesechniques .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5050505050Picking the right transducer (mic or hydrophone)Picking the right transducer (mic or hydrophone)Picking the right transducer (mic or hydrophone)Picking the right transducer (mic or hydrophone)Picking the right transducer (mic or hydrophone) ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5050505050Field ProblemsField ProblemsField ProblemsField ProblemsField Problems ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5151515151

WWWWWind.ind.ind.ind.ind. .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5151515151Rain and humidityRain and humidityRain and humidityRain and humidityRain and humidity..... ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5252525252

Experiments. Experiments. Experiments. Experiments. Experiments. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5252525252AntsAntsAntsAntsAnts ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5252525252Aquatic creaturesAquatic creaturesAquatic creaturesAquatic creaturesAquatic creatures ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5252525252Sand dunesSand dunesSand dunesSand dunesSand dunes ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353PoolsPoolsPoolsPoolsPools .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5353535353CricketsCricketsCricketsCricketsCrickets ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353GlaciersGlaciersGlaciersGlaciersGlaciers ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353

Points to note:Points to note:Points to note:Points to note:Points to note: ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353The elements that affect recording most are:The elements that affect recording most are:The elements that affect recording most are:The elements that affect recording most are:The elements that affect recording most are: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353Elements that affect the equipment:Elements that affect the equipment:Elements that affect the equipment:Elements that affect the equipment:Elements that affect the equipment: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5353535353Elements that will make a recordist’s life easier (and can’t be em-Elements that will make a recordist’s life easier (and can’t be em-Elements that will make a recordist’s life easier (and can’t be em-Elements that will make a recordist’s life easier (and can’t be em-Elements that will make a recordist’s life easier (and can’t be em-

phasized enough).phasized enough).phasized enough).phasized enough).phasized enough). ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5454545454Recording set upRecording set upRecording set upRecording set upRecording set up ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5454545454Field techniques for finding creatures and locations.Field techniques for finding creatures and locations.Field techniques for finding creatures and locations.Field techniques for finding creatures and locations.Field techniques for finding creatures and locations. .................................................................................................................................. 5454545454

Appendix C - Appendix C - Appendix C - Appendix C - Appendix C - Applications of Applications of Applications of Applications of Applications of Acoustic DataAcoustic DataAcoustic DataAcoustic DataAcoustic Data ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5959595959IdentifyingIdentifyingIdentifyingIdentifyingIdentifying ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5959595959Cataloguing or archivingCataloguing or archivingCataloguing or archivingCataloguing or archivingCataloguing or archiving ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5959595959

AuditionAuditionAuditionAuditionAudition ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5959595959BackupBackupBackupBackupBackup ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5959595959AnalysisAnalysisAnalysisAnalysisAnalysis ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6060606060

Archive information sample layoutArchive information sample layoutArchive information sample layoutArchive information sample layoutArchive information sample layout ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6161616161TTTTTechniquesechniquesechniquesechniquesechniques ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6262626262Data structureData structureData structureData structureData structure ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6262626262

ApplicationsApplicationsApplicationsApplicationsApplications .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6363636363Conforming data for educational and interpretive purposesConforming data for educational and interpretive purposesConforming data for educational and interpretive purposesConforming data for educational and interpretive purposesConforming data for educational and interpretive purposes ................................................................................................................... 6363636363

GlossaryGlossaryGlossaryGlossaryGlossary .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6464646464

IndexIndexIndexIndexIndex ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6767676767

Bibliography and Recommended ReadingBibliography and Recommended ReadingBibliography and Recommended ReadingBibliography and Recommended ReadingBibliography and Recommended Reading ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 6969696969

Additional ResourcesAdditional ResourcesAdditional ResourcesAdditional ResourcesAdditional Resources............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 7070707070

Organizations to ContactOrganizations to ContactOrganizations to ContactOrganizations to ContactOrganizations to Contact .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 7171717171

6

An important part of the NPS mission is topreserve and/or restore the naturalresources of the parks, including thenatural soundscapes associated with unitsof the national park system. Naturalsounds are intrinsic elements of theenvironment that are often associatedwith parks and park purposes. They areinherent components of “the scenery andthe natural and historic objects and thewild life” protected by the NPS OrganicAct.

Educating the American public about thenation’s natural and cultural heritage isone of the fundamental responsibilities ofthe National Park Service and is central toits resource preservation efforts.Superintendents will use educational andinterpretive materials . . . on the naturalsoundscape and its values to educatevisitors about their soundscapes.

NPS Director’s Order 47:Soundscape Preservationand Noise Management.

This is an introduction to the devel-opment of natural soundscape programs– programs intended for both childrenand adults. It is designed to be imple-mented by National Park Service staff,support groups, and volunteers. Thisguide supplements and complementsThe Nature of Sound material (NPSSound Education Plan Materials, RevisedEdition, 1999), and offers a series of pro-grams designed to produce a revitalizedexperience of the wild through listening.In fact, by teaching you to listen in newways, it is designed to help enhance thestaff and visitor experience of the nationalparks to more fully understand and ap-preciate the vast implications of naturalsoundscapes as a precious resource - the

intent of the educational directive in D.O.47.

From the perspective of this directiveand to help interpret natural soundscapefor visitors, the objective of this guide isto encourage visitors of all ages to spendmore time in the field peacefully but ac-tively enjoying the natural world from theperspective of sound. As binoculars andmicroscopes aid our vision, some easy-to-use audio aids are introduced into thisexperience to boost our ability to listenas well.

Background and historyKey to an understanding of the natu-

ral world is the sound emanating fromevery habitat. In general, habitats gener-ate two types of non-human sound: bio-phony - meaning those sounds producedby living organisms that relate to one an-other in a symbiotic relationship definingeach habitat and its relative health, andgeophony - non-creature sounds likestreams, weather, and effects of wind intrees and grasses. All of these sounds helpdefine the boundaries of each habitat inways not previously considered. Whenlumped all together, these concepts fallinto broad categories referred to as natu-ral soundscapes.

Historically we have come to under-stand the natural world mostly throughwhat we see. At the same time we haveforgotten the extent to which our ears areable to provide the necessary additionalinformation and drama. One cannot heara wolf howl or a bird sing by sight. Whileour experience of the natural world isenhanced through the use of all oursenses, our ears alone are able to pro-

I. Introduction to Natural Soundscapes

7

vide a dynamic and dramatic source ofinformation - once we again learn to lis-ten with the discrimination our forest-dwelling ancestors understood.

Long ago, we were able to know theplace in which we lived as much by soundas by sight and smell. We humans walkedthe forests and deserts of our respectiveworlds and knew our location, not by aglobal positioning system (GPS), a topo-graphical map, or compass, but by thedelicate fabric of creature, liquid, and air-borne cues received by ear. In genuineresponse, we, in turn, learned to sing anddance using the sounds of our naturalsurroundings as a kind of karaoke orches-tra with which we performed. Human lifewas greatly enriched by giving back inkind through movement, story, and songwhat was received from the forests,deserts, mountains and oceans of theworld. This ancient connection, the onethat once made us functional and healthy,hasn’t been particularly valued for a timelonger than modern time longer thanmodern history. However, that oversightappears to be changing. Because of theincrease in human-induced noise, re-newed public interest in quietude andthe sounds of the natural wild are begin-ning to bring about significant changesin thinking. This includes a heightened

appeal for new visitor experiences withinthe national parks as natural sound-scapes are increasingly being seen andunderstood as a valued resource.

Natural soundscape is nature’s voiceFor years, the National Park Service

considered the natural soundscape as avalued ingredient; a concept as importantto visitor experience as its wide vistas andits individualized inventory of flora andfauna. Today, however, in order to hearthis wonderful resource unobstructed,visitors need to be encouraged and taughtto be especially quiet because the fabricof soundscape is often quite delicate. Ajet flying at 30,000 feet ten miles distantcan (and sometimes does) mask the voiceof a creature or alter its behavior. Mostnotably, human mechanical noises canand do profoundly affect visitor experi-ence of the wild.

This guide provides a range of ap-proaches to listening with renewed andconsidered respect. Many of those whohave learned this sensory skill, havefound their lives transformed and drawnto new discoveries with each new ventureinto the wild natural world. The power ofnatural soundscapes can now be moreeffectively introduced to national parkvisitors.

8

Soundscape education is an exciting, multi-dimensional way to teach and learn aboutaspects of the natural world.

Background and historyThere are two compelling reasons for

implementing programs related to natu-ral soundscapes within national parks.First, many of these parks provide someof the few places left in the United Stateswhere certain key types of undisturbedhabitats remain for study, visitor enjoy-ment, and the health of local fauna. Andsecond, to date, no comprehensive natu-ral soundscape inventory has yet beenattempted. These vital indicators of habi-tat health and other precious sources ofinformation need to be discovered, iden-tified, and archived.

There are other reasons, as well. Fromthe perspective of National Park Serviceeducational programs, natural sound-scapes offer many new and fresh oppor-tunities to enhance visitor experience ofboth wilderness and other aspects of theparks. These include aural experiencesencountered in many distinctive and dif-ferent habitats, e.g., riparian, meadow,edge, lake-side, different types of forests,fresh and salt water marine. Other auralexperiences include specially designedand informative soundscapes in interpre-tive areas, at visitor centers, and otherkey locations throughout the parks,guided programs for children and adults,and web-based sites that inform and en-gage a curious public attuned to the vir-tual world. Information that will help Na-tional Park Service staff understand andinform visitors about the nature of soundand natural soundscapes is offered in theremainder of the document.

The nature of sound Sound is an atmospheric vibration

that causes stimulation of the brain’s au-ditory centers. If the physiology of themechanism is intact, an average unim-paired human listener will be able to hearbetween 20 Hertz (vibrations per second)to 20kHz - the full range of human capa-bility. To some degree, all humans whosehearing is unimpaired or relatively intact,can hear. Listening in discriminatingways, however, is another story. Listen-ing is primal, physical, sensual and mostof all mysterious because sound can’t beseen. It is precisely because it cannot begrasped in the hand and because it is il-lusive that the medium of sound and, inparticular, the voices of the natural worldare so compelling. As a resource in thesense that most other resources are con-sidered, natural soundscapes are un-usual because they have no intrinsic eco-nomic value. They can be appreciatedonly for themselves and what they bringto the experience of the visit to a particu-lar natural or virtual site. Yet each natu-ral soundscape contains vital informationthat is just beginning to be valued andunderstood both for it’s own sake and forits positive effect on humans. It is thisknowledge-to-be-gained component thatPark Service staff and visitors alike canhelp provide through the listening pro-grams that are outlined in this guide.

A soundscape is the voice of a place Identified and first studied in the

1970s by Canadian R. Murray Schaferand his colleagues at Simon Fraser Uni-versity in Vancouver, B. C., naturalsoundscape is the special way in whichall the sounds of a natural environment,including resident and seasonal organ-

II. Education and Natural Soundscapes

9

isms, blend into what we call a biophony.Think of a biophony as the unique anddistinctive symphony of creature voicesthat defines each particular habitat. Theexpression of biophony depends on lo-cation, season, weather conditions, timeof day or night, whether the biome is wetor dry, whether the habitat is primary orsecondary growth, clearcut or unchanged,and many other combined factors. Givencertain conditions, biophony is as clearan indicator of individual place, its fitness,and age, as a thumbprint is to each hu-man individual.

Ties to our evolutionary pastCulturally, natural soundscapes have

affected the human world in profoundways. For instance, recent evidence indi-cates that it was the animals who firsttaught us to dance and sing. The BayakaPygmies who live in the rainforests of theCentral African Republic, the Kaluli ofNew Guinea, and the Jivaro of the West-ern Amazon basin use the sounds of theirrespective habitats as a natural karaokeorchestra with which they sing, dance,and create their music. Biophony alsoserves as an acoustic territorial guideduring night hunts and journeys. Thiswas also the case with many Native Ameri-can groups from the tropical and sub-tropical rainforests of the Americas andto the vast sub-arctic and arctic regionsin the north prior to the encroachmentand masking effects of human mechani-cal noise.

It appears that ancient human beingslearned well the lessons imparted by natu-ral sounds. Their lives depended as much(if not more) on their ability to hear andunderstand the biophonies of their sur-roundings as those given by visual cues.Not only can the Jivaro, Bayaka andKaluli distinguish one creature soundfrom another within a din of natural

soundscapes, but they can recognize thesubtle differences in sound between vari-ous mini-habitats as small as twentysquare meters in a forest. Moreover, whenone closely observes the effects of chim-panzees, mountain gorillas, and orangu-tans pounding out complex rhythms onthe buttresses of rainforest trees in Af-rica or Borneo, one cannot help but bestruck by the articulation of the message,its effect on other groups of primateswithin hearing range of the sounds, andthe natural origins of the human art ofdrumming and making music - particu-larly when combined with the rest of theforest sounds.

Several years ago, while working withthe Jivaro, this author was invited go outon a night hunt guided only by the soundsof the forest which the tribe uses as a kindof natural GPS. The hunters had no arti-ficial source of light; no starlight pen-etrated the dense canopy above. It wasotherwise completely dark. Mostly, fromsubtle changes in the biophony of theforest, the hunters and trackers could de-termine exactly where they were, whatanimal was several hundred meters dis-tant, what direction it was heading, andwhether or not it was worth following.Contemporary cultures, considered moreadvanced, once knew those skills as truehunters a very long time ago. Most ofthose talents are forgotten or neglectedin the modern world. The programs con-tained in this guide are designed to re-educate and to reintroduce some of thoseuseful listening skills and to reawaken asense of natural soundscape awareness.

Science of natural sound Since the end of the Nineteenth Cen-

tury, researchers in the natural sciencespredominately focused on the study ofsingle isolated creatures in an effort tounderstand an organism’s connection to

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the whole environment. This abstractionor fragmentation is based on the assump-tion that isolated studies are always easierto grasp and measure within the canonsof pure and carefully considered aca-demic terms - that once the part is un-derstood, the whole can somehow be ex-trapolated. It is easier to impose controlson these types of studies - the quantifiedresults offering models that fit commonexpectations. Indeed, even in the rela-tively new field of bio-acoustics (bio = life,acoustics = sound), when portable andprofessional quality tape recorders andmicrophones that could be used outdoorsfirst emerged in the late 1960s, field re-searchers enthusiastically taped singlecreature sounds and isolated individualanimal vocalizations only to find that sig-nificant parts of the messages eludedthem altogether. It is what Stephen JayGould calls “...the invisibility of largercontexts caused by too much focus uponsingle items, otherwise known as miss-ing the forest through the trees.” Indeed,we have a great deal of difficulty grasp-ing the larger, more complex concepts -even when they may hold the key to sim-pler truths. Bearing this in mind, we arejust now beginning to realize the impor-tant role ambient sound plays in our en-vironment. Hearing the sounds in a con-text with every other creature voice re-veals a more complete and compellingstory of a habitat. From traditional meth-odology, taking the voice of a single ani-mal from a habitat and trying to under-stand it out of context is a little like try-ing to comprehend an elephant by ex-amining only a single hair at the tip ofits tail (before cloning, of course).

Our ancestors had intimate knowl-edge of what successfully excited manyforest inhabitants into vocal action. It isthe knowledge, still applicable today, thatin every biome within the realm of the

wild natural where the environment isstill completely intact, a unique voice,made up of the complex relationship be-tween all vocal creatures, is quite un-equaled. These organisms, when vocaliz-ing, produce niches measurable by time(rhythm), amplitude (loudness), fre-quency (pitch), and timbre (quality ofsound). Furthermore, they have evolvedsound-generating communicationmechanisms which create audio outputcomplementary and relative to othernoise-producing creatures and the par-ticular acoustical properties of their re-spective habitats. Again, this phenom-enon is referred to as biophony.

The combined symbiotic sounds thatwhole groups of living organisms producetogether in any given biome at one timeare so singular and important to creaturelife in certain locations that if one crea-ture stops vocalizing, others tend imme-diately to join the chorus to keep theacoustic integrity of the habitats intact.This symbiotic acoustic relationship oc-curs, to one degree or another, in everytype of habitat on the planet - marine andterrestrial - as far as can be determined.

What is especially noteworthy is theway in which the acoustic niche changesas one moves short distances through-out a forest - even where vegetation andthe geological features appear to be visu-ally constant. While there are general orregional similarities, any subtle changein the mix of creatures alters the man-ner in which the biophony is expressed.Thus territorial grids of many shapes andsizes are often in a state of flux. Thesebiophonic zones are vastly different inshape from the usual scientific grids of100 square meters scientists were origi-nally taught to use as guidelines for datacollection and mapping.

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BiophonyIllustrated below is a graphic example

how biophony works: Figures 1 and 2reveal simple and complex habitat ambi-ent niche spectrograms (or voice prints)where consistent dark lines runninghorizontally across the page represent aunique mixture of insect voices occupy-ing several “bands” of a 20 - 10,000 Hertzfrequency spectrum in Figure 1, and a

20 - 20kHz. spectrum in Figure 2. Notethat the darker the line, the greater theamplitude in that particular range. Thefour short dashes toward the bottom ofthe page in Figure 1 represent the lowvoice of a Zenaida dove (Zenaidamacroura), a common species of bird liv-ing in the Virgin Islands on St. Maartenand in this hemisphere. (This particularsample was taken on Pic Paradis, a 400mmountain on the French side of the is-land).

Figure 1 Spectrogram of soundscape at Pic Paradis, St. Maarten, V.I.

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cal energy. These spaces are representedby either light or white spaces. It turnsout that in every unaltered habitat re-corded, many birds, mammals, and am-phibians find and learn to vocalize inacoustical niches unimpeded by thevoices of less mobile creatures such asnear-ranging insects. It is suspected thatsimilar models hold true for sites withinthe national parks; a hypothesis in theinitial stages of investigation.

The Figure 2 sample was recorded re-cently in Borneo. Again, the dense hori-zontal lines running across the middle ofthe page represent insect voices. However,notice the Asian paradise flycatcher(Terpsiphone paradisi) vocalizations atboth the left and right sides of the spec-trogram. Its voice is made up of threeharmonic components called formants.And they fit uniquely and exactly into sev-eral niches where there is little or no vo-

Fig. 2 Camp Leakey, Borneo, primary old-growth biophony spectrogram

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Biophonic dating.When examined from an aural per-

spective, territory becomes defined in di-mensions well beyond the 3-D topographi-cal one might experience on a traditionalmap. Furthermore, examining habitatsfrom an aural perspective may allow usto actually determine their approximateage. For instance, in younger environ-ments, birds and mammals seem to oc-cupy only one niche at a given momentsuch as in Fig. 1, a secondary growthhabitat that has recovered from the stressof clear-cutting. However, in older envi-ronments, some tropical rainforest ani-mal vocalizations, like the Asian paradiseflycatcher in Fig. 2, are so highly special-ized that their voices occupy severalniches of the audio bio-spectrum at thesame time thus laying territorial claim toseveral channels. Early indicators hintthat this must have taken a particularlylong period to develop, thus revealing asense of habitat history.

Determining habitat healthThese types of observations may also

reveal a great deal more about the waysin which birds respond to the sounds oftheir environment. For example, many mi-grating eastern American warblers, ableto learn only one song and call in theirlives, might find themselves unable toadjust to the changes in ambient soundwhen they fly to their rapidly disappear-ing Caribbean or Latin American winter-ing sites. Where these environments havebeen deforested, and when birds try tomove nearby to ostensibly similar or sec-ondary growth habitats, they may dis-cover that they are unable to be heard.Analyses of field recordings are beginningto indicate the possibility that survivalmight be impaired because territorialand/or gender related communicationsare masked. As a result, the concept ofbiophony might be utilized as an indica-

tor of habitat health insofar as it demon-strates soundscape’s relevance to thesupport of creature life.

Around the time it was realized thatwhat is represented through biophonyis an animal orchestra with each crea-ture vocalizing in its own niche, it wasnoticed that when a bird sang or a mam-mal or amphibian vocalized, the voicesappeared to fit in relation to all of thenatural sounds of the immediate envi-ronment. Over a number of years onecould return to the same sites only tofind, when the recordings were analyzed,that each site revealed significant bio-acoustic continuity - much like one wouldexpect to find from fingerprint matching.The unique groupings from each of theselocations all tended to remain the same(given time of year, day, and weather pat-terns) no matter where one worked, aslong as the habitat remained relativelyundisturbed or unaltered.

Noise issues. At the beginning of the21st Century, it often takes some time andpatience to locate quiet places in whichto listen and record. The long wait is dueprimarily to the introduction of human-induced mechanical noise(s) like chain-saws (heard from twenty miles away), air-craft, ATVs, ORVs, jet skis, snowmobiles,etc., coupled with a serious depletion ofundisturbed habitat. Mechanical noise isendemic and nearly universal. It has be-come so virulent that noise is now in-cluded as a component of niche studiesto see how it affects creature voices, be-havior, and visitor experience to wildplaces. The national parks, in particular,still occasionally provide uniquely quiethabitats that field recordist, GordonHempton, describes as having noise freeintervals (NFI), fifteen minutes of naturalsounds unimpeded by mechanical noise

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and where recordings of even longer du-ration are possible.

Ethics and responsibility. Duringthe past four centuries modern humanshave moved some distance away from twoimportant methods of connecting to ournatural world. One has been the appar-ent need to abstract creatures out of con-text in an attempt to study and under-stand them. The other has to do with themanner in which we have forsaken ourreliance on hearing as a necessary win-dow of knowledge. This unwitting deaf-ness has impaired our ability to makeethical and responsible decisions withregard to the preservation of precioushabitats and, in particular, the naturalsoundscape that so eloquently definesthem and reveals their respective stories.

Because we have become so visual asa culture, we have learned to hear mostlywhat we can see. Waves at the oceanshore are a good example. Stand at thewaterline and look at distant breakersseveral hundred yards offshore and youwill hear the pounding thunder they pro-duce. Look at the waves at middle dis-tance and you will hear the splash of curlsas the waves break and fold. And, finally,when you look at your feet, you’ll hearthe bubbles on the sand as the leadingedge of the water fizzles and crackles asit advances and recedes. Of course, allthese events are happening at the sametime. But we have learned to use our eyesto isolate one component of the experi-ence from all the others. As our eyes catch

the orange breast of a robin in a tree, wehear it singing - conspicuous among themany other species that also may hap-pen to be singing at the same time. It,alone, catches our eye/ear. Because wenow use our eyes as hearing aids, we haveactually become a little deaf, having beendesensitized to other possibilities. Hardof hearing in that special way, we cannotexpect to gain the relevant knowledgeneeded to help us make completely in-formed decisions about the well-being ofbiomes we care about. However, by dis-covering how other creatures in the natu-ral world use their ears to see, we cancome to realize wonder through the pro-cess. After all, when creatures need to beheard, they must learn to use their voicesin a way that will blend with other ani-mals or the natural sounds around them- just like the performances of humanmusic. When all these creatures sing to-gether, they form a chorus of sounds sospecial that even the finest composershaven’t been able to write music nearlyas breathtaking. Our responsibility is tofind new ways to listen.

Educating visitors about naturalsoundscape. Generally this involves twostages. One is learning to listen in dis-criminating ways to the textures of soundwith our ears, alone. The second involvesthe use of simple tools. In much the samemanner as we would employ binocularsor microscopes to enhance our vision, weamplify sound to expand detail andheighten the sense of our aural perspec-tive.

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In general and historically, a large per-centage of visitors have experienced onlylimited aspects of the national parks. Thegreatest share of visitors encounter theparks from the interior of their vehicles,leaving them for the relatively short peri-ods of time it takes for picnics at a turn-out, short walks on well-maintained trailsnot terribly far from parking lots or visi-tor center locations where there are in-terpretive displays, shops, restaurants,and well-advertised dramatic geologicalfeatures. While some few prefer to hikeinto the backcountry and wilderness toget away from greater human density,these do not typify the largest block ofpark visitors.

Programs through the NPS visitor cen-ters offer sojourners a large number ofoptions to further enhance their experi-ence of the particular park being explored.From Junior Wilderness Ranger pro-grams, informative nature walks and vid-eos, to those promoting wilderness eti-quette and low impact contact, these pro-grams have served the visitor base quitewell. Most, however, have been tradition-ally focused on visual aspects of the parkexperience. But, as noted, this trend hasbegun to shift as a result of increasingnoise and the desire to hear naturalsounds of the national parks unimpeded.

Since the early 1990s, visitors beganto exhibit a trend in response to park ex-periences that called particular attentionto human mechanical noise issues).“Many surveys show that quiet, solitude,and natural sounds play important rolesin recreation experiences. Recreation areausers consistently state that escapingnoise and enjoying the sounds of nature

are among the most important reasonsthey visit natural areas. Other, more re-cent studies, confirm this inclination.That is why it is so important that theNational Park Service realize new pro-grams aimed at visitor engagement withthe wonderful and powerful naturalsoundscapes offered in the wildlands ofthe National Park System.

Natural soundscapes matter to visitorexperience. Soundscapes are a majorcomponent of the national park adven-ture. Natural soundscapes can rarely befound elsewhere.

Soundscapes within the non-humanworld define territories of whole groupsof creatures, provide information aboutthe well-being of habitats, and to the ex-tent of our human ability to understandthem, they furnish us with a fairly accu-rate measure of our connection to thenatural world and wilderness, in particu-lar. We are just beginning to understandthat long-range communication is madepossible by elephants, right whales, andeven the ruffed grouse because of the lowfrequency signals they transmit throughthe various media (air and water) theyinhabit. Higher frequency signals, likethose of bats and dolphins cover shorterdistances. In fact, the highest voice in theanimal kingdom is the blind Ganges dol-phin (Plantanista gangetica) at over350kHz - five octaves beyond the highestnote a human being can hear. To be ef-fective, all of these voices have to “fit”somehow within the conditions of theirrespective environments which are oftendetermined by a combination of creatureand non-creature mixes of sound. It is thisnatural soundscape that helps determine

III. The Importance of Natural Soundscapes toVisitors

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the ways in which creature voices developover time. Visitors want to increase thejoy of their experience within the parks.This occurs when they gain an intuitiveunderstanding of wilderness throughtheir encounters with natural sounds.

Healthy ecosystemsEcosystems demonstrate their level of

fitness partly by the ways in which all ofthese creature and non-creature soundsfit in relationship to one another. If a crea-ture voice is masked by another and can-not be heard, and if that voice is neces-sary to its survival, then it will have tofind a place for itself within the aural fab-ric of the habitat that does not obviate achance for clear communication. Other-wise it probably will not survive. Whenexamining a spectrogram as seen in Figs.1 and 2 in Chapter 1, a healthy environ-ment will show evidence of significant dis-crimination between voices. A healthierhabitat will feature a spectrogram high-lighting more discrimination and detail.The soundscapes of stressed or destroyedhabitats will result in spectrograms ei-ther mostly black (loaded with soundstrying to find a place for themselves andindistinguishable from one another) orwhite (places with little or no creatures,at all).

Cultural and Social Implications toHumans.

As a visual culture, sound has tendedto play a secondary role in the ways weinform ourselves about the natural world.This general tendency has deep culturalroots beginning nearly 10,000 years agowhen we became an agriculture-basedcivilization. As forests were cleared for theplanting of crops, firewood, and materi-als to build villages and cities, habitatswhere natural soundscape could beheard grew more distant from centers ofpopulation. This was the first level of de-

tachment. Later, the level of noise fromdomestic animals, wheels over cobble-stone with grinding axles, then the In-dustrial Revolution and all of its offspringinterceded, masking most of what wasleft.

In the 33 years this author has beenin the field, old growth forests in theUnited States have been reduced from45% of their original stands, to 2%. That,coupled with the noise issues noted in TheNature of Sound educational material,means that only certain of the nationalparks and other protected wildland areasare left as major residual locations wherevisitors can to rediscover the subtle butpowerful impact these sounds have on thehuman experience of the wild.

It is notable that natural soundscapeis the primary source of our dance andmusic. As the late Paul Shepard re-marked:

“Why and how did we first dance,sing, and make instrumental music?What was the idea behind it? Per-haps we did not invent music at allbut appropriated it as an expressionof our own felt rhythms. Like muchelse in the human repertoire, musicmay have been already there whenwe arrived and its performance waseverywhere audible and visible. Theclassical Greeks told of Orpheus,who created music and taught it tothe astonished beasts. But theOrphic myth had it backward. It wasthe animals who first made musicand Orpheus’ ancestors who lis-tened. Hearing and mimicking thenatural world gave us our ear. Whenhumans uttered their first words,birds, frogs, and insects were al-ready whistling, dancing, drumming,trilling.”

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Subsequent research with the Bayakaand Kaluli (Sarno, Feld, et al) demon-strate clearly that humans closely linkedto the wild natural make no distinctionsbetween themselves and their other-crea-ture worlds. In their languages no wordexists that is the equivalent of our wordfor “nature.” No ego exists that deter-mines or rationalizes a hierarchical placewhen compared to other living organisms.

The Kaluli, Bayaka, and Pitjanjarn areliving examples of groups whose integra-tion with the natural world is total as thelanguage of their music demonstrates. Inour remarkable wild lands we have thechance, through programs implementedin national parks, to offer others the well-spring of inspiration – what Paul Shepardrefers to as “the mark of a healthy cul-ture” once again

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The natural sounds and sound-scapes of wild America are a rare and di-minishing resource, and a resource thatis accessible to fewer and fewer membersof an increasingly urban society. Indeed,the strong visual orientation of contem-porary society means that it is an enor-mous task to alert and educate the Ameri-can public to what is being lost. NationalPark Service management philosophy in-cludes education as an important aspectof managing all its resources. In addition,educating park visitors on this diminish-ing resource is consistent with the Na-tional Park Service Mission to ‘...conservethe scenery and the natural and historicobjects and the wild life therein and toprovide for the same in such manner andby such means as will leave them unim-paired for the enjoyment of future gen-erations.”

It is clear that programs are neededthat will broaden awareness, understand-ing, and appreciation for the naturalsoundscapes of national parks and pro-tected wildlands. While it is an individualnational park responsibility to developand implement such programs, this guidehas been prepared to facilitate the workof park educators and interpreters in thisregard.

The National Park Service is increas-ingly using an interpretive planning pro-cess from The Effective Planning of Park-wide Interpretive Programs developed bythe National Park Service IntermountainSupport Office. Through this process,individual national parks are preparingcomprehensive interpretive plans; it isvital that the interpretation of naturalsoundscapes be addressed in these

plans, especially at the major naturalparks.

This planning process first generatesSignificance Statements that clearly de-fine important aspects of the park or sub-ject to be interpreted. These express thefundamental rationales that provide con-nection between the park or program’s en-abling legislation and the interpretive pro-grams developed in the park. Where doesthe natural soundscape fit in the con-text of a specific national park? It maybe a fundamental resource or may havean important support role. But the ques-tion needs to be asked! The following aresome examples of possible SignificanceStatements related to natural sound-scapes:

♦ Places where vital soundscapes ex-ist unimpeded provide significantscientific laboratories where collat-eral research can be conductedsupportive of other investigativedisciplines.

♦ Learning to listen to natural sound-scapes unimpeded by human me-chanical noise provides importantinformation with regard to conser-vation, preservation, ecosystemmanagement, and resource stew-ardship along with other disci-plines.

♦ Wilderness soundscape experienceprovides necessary links with ourancient roots helping us appreci-ate the inspiration for aural aspectsof ourculture and those preceding.

♦ Natural soundscape, as nature’svoice, connects with humans on a

IV. Interpretive Themes and Natural Soundscapes

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physical and spiritual level leadingto a sense of well-being and a pro-foundreduction of stress. It pro-vides places of tranquility, peace-fulness, and a timeless haven forcontemplation, reflection, and soli-tude.

♦ Pure natural soundscapes speak tohope, imagination, renewal, and in-spiration and enhance the visualand tactile sense of national parksand wilderness.

♦ The risks and common fears inher-ent in wilderness experiences areabated somewhat as humans learnto read the subtle changes in theexpression of biophony.

♦ Undisturbed natural sound is thepure expression of wildnessthrough the voices of organismsand natural features of any givenhabitat. The vitality and discrimi-nation between the various voicescan provide a sense of wildness ex-pressed by no other element.

Significance Statements like theabove can be used to generate primaryInterpretive Themes for the specificpark of programs being planned. Withinthis context it will be essential for the

interpreter or educator to address natu-ral sounds. This can be integrated intothese educational plans either as a stand-alone theme or as a supporting compo-nent of identified themes. As alreadynoted, modern society is visually ori-ented, and existing interpretive plans arelikely to reflect that. Interpreters areencouraged to look at their plans with“fresh eyes” to explore how to use natu-ral sounds in their programs. Parks withsignificant natural soundscape resourcesshould consider addressing naturalsoundscapes as one of the resources theyneed to explain to visitors. At these andother parks, consideration needs to begiven to using natural sounds to help visi-tors experience their interpretive themesin a different and more exciting way. Ig-noring natural sounds as an aspect oflearning, teaching, and guiding withinthe natural world is a bit like turning offthe soundtrack to the movie Star Warsand trying to understand the plot.

Although the Interpretive Themescan only be built by park educators andinterpreters, this guide can provide sug-gestions on programs, media, and ser-vices that are useful to every audience’senhanced understanding of the naturalworld where the soundscape is a semi-nal component-the unique voice of a spe-cific national park.

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The following series of programs, fromsimple to complex, will help guide visi-tors on the path to discovery of good lis-tening and field recording.

To explore the awesome wonder ofnatural soundscapes National Park Ser-vice staff will need to help visitors read-just their perspectives away from the fre-netic mechanized everyday world and sim-ply let natural soundscape engulf them.Programs 1 – 5 offer visitor activities thatcan be done by experiencing wild sound-scapes with unaided listening. Programs6 and 7, because they involve hearingcreatures either too small, with voices toosoft, or because they inhabit marine en-vironments, requires simple technology.It is comparable to the use of binocularsor microscopes to enhance vision.

Many programs can be developed thatcan help visitors engage with the crea-ture world in new ways. As part of TheNature of Sound material, Miriam Gra-ham from Canyonlands put together auseful program outline a few years agofor experiencing natural soundscapes.The following is some of what she offered:

Program Name: The Nature ofSound

Theme:Units of the national park sys-

tem are special places that preservenatural sound environments thatare important qualities of naturalecosystems. National Park Servicesites also provide people the oppor-tunity to experience tranquility,natural quiet, solitude, and con-templation. These diminishing re-

sources contribute tot he health ofthe environment and are importantfor our well-being and that of ourchildren.

Public appreciation of these as-sets must be nurtured to reducedegradation of natural soundscapesin national parks and restore op-portunities to hear and enjoy thesound of our nation’s natural andcultural heritage.

Goals:This program will help visitors

focus on natural soundscapes thatexist in national parks.

Visitors will appreciate naturalsoundscapes as important to natu-ral ecosystems in national parksand as significant aspects of a qual-ity visitor experience which hasboth physical and emotional ben-efits.

Objectives:A. Visitors will be able to state,in their own words, the importanceof natural sound environments tothemselves as visitors.B. Visitors will be able to statetwo ways in which natural sound-scapes are important to their parkexperience and their own well-be-ing.C. Visitors will be able to listat least one way that naturalsounds are important to naturalecosystems.

Logistics:As Required

V. Programs and Activity Sites

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Materials:As Required.

An audiocassette of natural andcultural sounds should be available,but only if conditions prevent theinterpreter from introducing visitorsto natural soundscapes in wildplaces. 35mm color slides includedin the National park Service SoundEducation Plan Materials may beused in interpretive slide presenta-tions.

Reference Materials:A. Nature of Sound Interpreta-tion Support Package.B. Sound Education Plan Pow-erPoint Presentation (See List of Resources)C. Nature of Sound audiocas-sette or CD from National Park Ser-vice Sound Education Plan Materi-als.

Program History:This program was initiated in

1998 in support of the National ParkService Sound Education Plan.

(Note: The sample programMiriam Graham developed is in-cluded in Appendix B.)

How can the soundscape program re-adjust visitor perspectives? The followingactivity and site plans provide an insightinto that question.

Activity Sites are locations within thepark where interpretive programs may oc-cur. In the table that follows, seven typesof programs for park visitors of all ages areidentified along with suggestions as towhere they might be implemented. Each

of these could have a website equivalent.In the remainder of this chapter, theseseven programs are explored in greaterdetail.

Program 1. Locating Quiet NaturalSoundscapes

A. Questions to ask:Prepare a list of questions to engage visi-

tors in the process of this discovery. Samplequestions might be:

1. What do we mean by a quiet spot?2. What do we mean by “noise?”3. What types of natural sounds within

a given habitat make us feel good?4. What types of natural sounds help

us feel relaxed?5. What types of sounds interfere with

our experience of the wild natural?6. What kinds of sounds are acceptable

within this park?7. How can we take what we’ve experi-

enced soundscape-wise in the parkto our cities, rural areas, or otherplaces in which we live or vacation?

8. Add you own questions…

B. Activities:1. Help visitors find quiet spots - mean-

ing places where there are no me-chanical or other human noise ofany kind but where there are onlycreature or what we call geophonicnatural sounds (natural sounds cre-ated by non-living phenomena). Astream. A meadow. A favorite forest.A mountain. A beach. A muskeg(Ojibway word for bog).

2. Encourage them to give the experi-ence enough time to discover thatthere is a special aural fabric uniqueto that particular location. Unlike anyother, the sounds visitors mighthear at dawn, midday, afternoon,

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dusk, and nighttime, will definethe space more clearly and withmore detail than an Ansel Adamsphotograph.

3. To reach these spheres of sound,visitors may need to be encouragedto walk some distance away fromroads, lakes, well worn trails, or air-craft flight patterns where humannoises tend to be greatest, but therewards are sublime.

4. Encourage visitors to put awaytheir watches, cell phones, pagersand other technologies and letnatural time define itself by wavesof creature music.

C. Equipment needed:1. Visitor Center for an introduction

to natural soundscapes throughstaff orientation and available ex-hibitry.

2.Outreach programs in local andregional school programs introduc-ing school youth and adults to thepower of natural soundscapes.

3. Interpretive talks specially pre-pared by park staff for programsthat take place in the field.

D. Activity site(s):1. Visitor Center for an introduction

to natural soundscapes throughstaff orientation and available ex-hibitry.

2.Outreach programs in local andregional school programs introduc-ing school youth and adults to thepower of natural soundscapes.

3.Interpretive talks specially pre-pared by park staff for programsthat take place in the field.

A summary of program 1 is shown onthe following table

Table 1 Description of Program 1, Locating Quiet Soundscapes

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Program 2. Identifying and comparing“natural sound” and “noise”

A. Questions to ask:1. How many different types or fami-

lies (birds, insects, amphibians,mammals, etc.) can be heard?

2. Within each family, how many dif-ferent species can be identified?

3. Can the distinction between onehabitat and another by naturalsoundscape, alone, be made?

4. What defines the limits of bound-aries of a particular biophony?

5. What types of sound interfere withthe experience?

6. What types of noise cause vocal orbehavioral changes in either asingle species or the whole bio-phony?

B. Activities1. Have visitors listen (preferably with

eyes closed) to the ways in whichthe combination of creature voices(birds, insects, mammals, amphib-ians, etc.)define the space - a bio-phony, or animal symphony ofsounds that appears to be differ-ent as day and night, seasons andweather shift through their cycles.Each type of habitat - even withinthe same park - will provide aunique sound signature, just likeour individual voices. The naturalworld is alive with vibration. Evenone’s concept of time will changeas it is defined by sound.

2. Demonstrate how, in certain typesof forest, some creatures prefer tovocalize at night when dew is onthe ground, leaves, and branchesof trees. Using the forest as a re-verberant theater, this becomestheir time to “sing.” Certain night-time birds, coyotes and wolves singwith reverberant habitats changing

their voices slightly to accommo-date. Elk rutting in the fall some-times use the echoes of the forestto project their voices further. Evenkiller and humpback whales vocal-ize in air bouncing their voices offnearby cliffs near the shores of Gla-cier Bay and other similar environs.Other creatures like to vocalizewhen the habitat tends to be drier- after sunrise when the forest hasgiven up its surface moisture andanimal voices don’t need to carryso far, while yet others prefer tran-sition periods neither dry or withecho. Some visitors will prefer tolist and identify the sounds ofsingle animals rather thanbiophonies. By all means, invitethem do either or both at the sametime. No matter which format theyprefer (individuals or whole habi-tats), the times of greatest densityare generally the dawn chorus -just before, during, and after sun-rise - or the evening chorus inspring and early summer. Veryquickly, visitors will find that crea-tures can be heard at all times ofday, under a wide variety ofweather conditions, and in all sea-sons, and most habitats. Somesounds may be very subtle. That iswhy learning to listen is the key.

C. Equipment needed.1. Ears2. Pencil or pen3. Notebook

D. Activity site(s)1. Visitor Center for an introduction

and orientation to various quietnatural soundscape sites conveyedby staff, multi-media, and availableexhibitry.

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2. Outreach programs in local andregional school programs introduc-ing school youth and adults to thepotential experiences of naturalsoundscapes with your park. Dem-onstrations of how human noiseaffects both the human and non-human experience of the wild.

3. Interpretive talks specially preparedby park staff for programs that takeplace on site in the field.

A summary of program 2 is found inthe following table.

Table 2 Description of Program 2, Identifying and Comparing Natural Sound vs. Noise

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Program 3. Identifying Sources ofNatural Soundscapes

A. Questions to ask:1. How is biophony expressed in the

natural world?2. How is geophony expressed in the

natural world?

B. Activities1. Have visitors listen (preferably with

eyes closed) to the ways in whichthe combinations of creature voices(birds, insects, mammals, amphib-ians, etc.) create a soundscape andcomprise a biophony. Each type ofhabitat – even within the same park– will provide a unique sound sig-nature, much like our individualvoices.

2. Have visitors listen critically tozones with few creature voices butwhere there is a stream, a water-fall, the effect of wind in the trees,the effect of snow and other weatherconditions on sound. These geopho-nies are distinctive. Characterizethe subtle differences expressed bya stream as one follows its course,or moves nearer or further in prox-imity.

3. Demonstrate how, in certainbiomes, some creatures prefer tovocalize at night when dew is on theground, leaves and branches oftrees. Using the forest as a rever-berant theater, this becomes theirtime to “sing.” Certain nighttimebirds, coyotes, and other mammalschoose reverberant habitats, alter-ing their voices slightly to accom-modate. Elk rutting in the fallsometimes use the echoes of theforest to project their voices overlonger distances. Even killer andhumpback whales vocalize in airbounding their voices off nearby

cliffs near the shores of Glacier Bayand other similar environs. Othercreatures like to vocalize when thehabitat tends to be drier – aftersunrise when the forest has givenup its surface moisture and ani-mal voices don’t need to carry sofar; while yet others prefer transi-tional periods neither dry or echo-y.

4. Explore the ways in which creaturevoices are affected by the soundscreated by geophonic sources.

5. Some visitors will be drawn moreto the sounds of individual crea-tures. Encourage them to listen tothe ways in which these voices “fit”within the context of other creaturesounds in a given habitat.

C. Equipment needed.1. Ears2. Pencil or pen3. Notebook4. Binoculars

D. Activity Site(s)1. Visitor Center for an introduction

and orientation to various naturalsoundscape sites throughout thepark. This information will be con-veyed by staff, multi-media, andavailable exhibitry.

2. Outreach programs in local andregional school programs introduc-ing school youth and adults tonatural soundscape sites withinyour park. Demonstrations of howbiophony and geophony providesvital information necessary for pro-tection of habitats.

3. On site interpretive talks and ac-tivities specially prepared by parkstaff for visitors in the field.

A summary of program 3 is found inthe following table.

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Program 4. Defining Habitat Territoryby Natural Soundscapes

A. Questions to ask1. What can creature and non-crea-

ture voices tell us about the waysin which natural territories are de-fined?

B. Activities1. Have visitors explore the bound-

aries of a given habitat as it is ex-pressed by geophony, biophony, ora combination of both naturalsound sources.

2. Have visitors walk and map the lim-its of any given zone where thesound remains relatively un-changed.

3. Have visitors note how many dif-ferent zones are defined by a dis-tinctive soundscape within a rela-tively small area of land.

4. Ask visitors to listen and describehow the soundscape expands andcontracts depending on weather,season, time of day or night.

C. Equipment needed.1. Ears2. Pencil or pen3. Notebook4. Good pair of walking shoes

D. Activity Site(s)1. Visitor Center interactive exhibits

with GIS maps and related soundwill demonstrate the concept of

Table 3 Description of Program 3, Identifying Sources of Natural Soundscapes

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aural territories and their weather-or time-related mutability. Theseexhibits will also provide good bio-phonic sites for visitors to explore.

1. How is time expressed through bio-phonies?

2. How are seasons expressed throughbiophonies?

Table 4 Description of Program 4, Defining Habitat Territory By Natural Soundscapes

2. On site interpretive demonstra-tions by park staff will help informvisitors what to look for and howto define territories.

A summary of program 4 is found inthe following table.

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Program 5 Defining Temporal Aspects ofNatural Soundscapes

A. Question to ask1. How is time expressed through bio-

phonies?2. How are seasons expressed through

biophonies?3. What creature voices arepresent in the pre-dawn and dawnchorus at one location?

4. What creatures voices are present dur-ing midday, afternoon, dusk, andevening choruses at one location?

5. What causes changes in the biophony?6. How do the acoustic properties of a

site (reverberation, no reverb, etc.) af-fect experience of the sound?

B. Activities1. From a single location encourage visi-

tors to enjoy the vitality of a spring orearly summer dawn chorus, arrivingon site half an hour before sunriseand remaining still until about halfan hour after.

2. Have visitors compare that experiencewith what the soundscape is like inthe late morning, mid-afternoon, atdusk, then in the evening.

C. Equipment needed:1. Ears2. Pencil or pen3. Notebook4. Good pair of walking shoes

D. Activity Site(s)1. Visitor Center orientation by park ser-

vice staff using exhibits that featureGIS maps and audio to convey con-cept to visitors and preparing them forthe scope of the program.

2. On site field briefing to familiarize visi-tors with the tasks necessary for a suc-cessful foray into the selected biome.

A summary of program 5 is found in thefollowing table.

Table 5 Description of Program 5, Defining Temporal Aspects of Natural Soundscapes

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Program 6. Experiencing UnusualComponents of Natural Soundscapes

A. Questions to ask1. How can we listen to ants, termites,

and other small ground-dwellingcreatures?

2. How can we listen to insect larvaeand small creatures in pools offresh and salt water?

3. How can we hear fish and crusta-ceans in their respective habitats?

4. What can some of these soundstell us?

B. Activities(Note: requires amplification or record-

ing gear…see Appendix A)

1. Find a carpenter ant (or other spe-cies) nest and lay a small lavalieremicrophone over the entrance tothe mound. Turn on the recorderor amplifier and listen.

2. Compare sounds of different spe-cies of ants. Compare ant stridula-tion with sound made by termitesor other ground-dwelling arthro-pods.

3. In fresh water pools during springand summer, drop a hydrophone(underwater microphone) into anearby pool. Hear waterboatmenand insect larvae.

4. In saltwater tide pools, listen tobarnacles twisting in their shells,gently drop a hydrophone into thebelly of an anemone to hear it tryto digest the element, and hearsmall rock fish and larvae presentin the habitat.

5. In littoral off-shore ocean environ-ments, listen to reef fish, cetaceansand other present marine mam-mals with a hydrophone.

C. Equipment needed1. Magnifying glass2. Lavaliere or stereo microphone3. Hydrophone4. DAT or minidisc recorder

D. Activity site(s)(where the ground was warmer). You

can also set up an inexpensive exhibitwhich conveys the idea. It would containa cricket in a glass jar with open top, a(hidden but accessible) temperaturegauge, and a chart with the formulaprinted on it. The question: “Using thesounds of the cricket chirps and the fol-lowing formula, what is the temperaturehere?”

A summary of program 6 is found inthe table on the next page.

Don’t let the visitor get stuck on themegafauna. The very small creatures,nearly microscopic, sing (meaning theyhave an audible signature) too, and theyhave wonderful voices. Several species ofants sing. Insect larvae in pools of watersing. Water boatmen, anemones, and fishsing. Even earthworms create a signatureas they navigate through the soil. Some,as with many species of bats, insects anddolphins, require specialized (but not-too-expensive) equipment to hear their amaz-ing voices. (See Appendix B)

Listening can be done as a group ef-fort, but only if everyone is dedicated tobeing very quiet. Leave the CD playershome or in the car. No talking. No rus-tling of Gortex clothing. No shuffling offeet, coughing, clearing of throats, or snif-fling. Visitors don’t have to hold their col-lective breaths. Just be cool and consid-erate. Suggest that they leave all otherthoughts behind and concentrate on theexperience of hearing.

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Many species of fish around coral reefsof the world generate some kind of auralsignature and create (together) uniquebiophonies that exist only in marine en-vironments. Anemones, small rock fish,and barnacles create their own biopho-nies in tide pools at the ocean’s shore.

Many varieties of ants and insect lar-vae “sing.” Earthworms, as they movethrough the soil, create a sound signa-ture unique to their species. And re-cently, Matthew Cooper and colleaguesat Cambridge University isolated thesound signature of viruses.

Certain vegetation creates sound sig-natures as it grows or as cells respond tochanges in osmotic pressure.

In many desert locations throughoutthe American Southwest and around theworld, sand dunes sing.

Make up new words. “Biophony” cameinto being when this author was lookingfor a word to describe the combined andrelated sound creatures make in a par-ticular location. Animal symphony wastoo cumbersome. That was July of 1998.We need lots more where that came from.You might make a game out of it and of-fer a special prize for the best word de-scribing natural sound contributed eachday or week or month.

Before introducing simple audio re-cording equipment, put together all thedifferent programs into one extended

Table 6 Description of Program 6, Experiencing Unusual Components of Natural Soundscapes

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agenda. Most of the parks that featurenatural settings contain many marineand terrestrial options…none more thanGlacier Bay…which is why we are intro-ducing this as an all-inclusive hypotheti-cal example:

While introducing visitors to the lis-tening and recording of natural sound-scapes in the vicinity of Glacier Bay inAlaska, for instance, have them create alist of habitats, natural occurrences, andcreatures actually heard. There are manydifferent varieties in Southeast Alaska,both marine and terrestrial. This exampleprovides the visitor with a wide range ofpossibilities to explore. In and aroundGlacier Bay, the following list of biometypes can be identified that exhibit dis-tinctive biophonies:

Whole habitats (biophonies):MuskegsCoastal coniferousMarshesLakesBays (inner tidal zones)Riparian zones (fast and slow wa-ter)Inland coniferous forestOpen marine environments (withwhales, seals, birds and airbornevoices)Submarine environments (same asabove only marine voices with birdsreplaced by fish, whales, crusta-ceans)Tide poolsShoreline

The following is a list of natural habi-tat sounds that are non-biological in na-ture that our group also identified:

Non-creature sounds:Rain

Wind (Not recordable, per se. Onlyits effect across broken reeds,through trees, etc..)Fast and slow streamsDifferent types of lake, ocean, andinland waterway wave actionGlacier masses moving over landGlaciers crackling (as ice melts)Glaciers calving

Finally, your visitors can put togethera list of birds and mammals that theyhear. In and around Glacier Bay it mayinclude four species of whales, bear,wolves, two types of seals, sea and riverotters, sea lions, anemones, barnacles,seventy-four species of birds plus snap-ping shrimp and fish. This exercise canserve as a dramatic indicator of thehabitat’s health. Note that because thisexample is a northern temperate/south-ern sub-arctic transitional zone, insectactivity (except for mosquitoes) tends tobe a bit lighter.

When comparing the biophonies of twoor more different habitats, the mix of crea-tures will help identify and provide asense of location. For instance, in onecoastal coniferous zone recorded, thegroup might hear varied thrushes,Swainson’s thrushes, robins, marbledmurrelets, and bald eagles, red-tailedhawks, mourning doves, ospreys, yellow-rumped warblers, ubiquitous ravens andcrows, and an occasional bee or mosquito.In any of several locations, visitors mayalso hear wolves. Non-creature soundsincluded the effect of wind blowingthrough the canopy of the forest.

Moving inland a short distance to asmall lake fed by a stream with a tiny wa-terfall, visitors will notice the biophonyimmediately changes to include a mix ofcommon loons, robins, American dippers,a great horned owl, a flock of herring

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gulls, hairy woodpeckers, and swallows.At this site, they see a river otter but itmade no sound while they were present.Non-creature sounds at this location dif-fered from the coastal coniferous by thenature of the gently flowing stream andthe waterfall in the distance.

When we dropped a hydrophone intothe water just off-shore, we were able tohear the sounds of humpbacks bubble-netting followed by their “contact” or feed-ing calls. We also heard snapping shrimp,and even some harbor seals. Lowering itinto a tide pool, and then into the ten-tacles of an anemone, we allowed it to besucked into its belly, which then tried todigest it. Finding nothing of nutritionalvalue the anemone expelled the hydro-phone with a hearty grunt, backed bythe biophony of barnacles twisting intheir shells, and tiny rock fish dartingfrom rock to rock in the pool.

Inland fresh water ponds provide won-drous sound generated by larvae andcreatures like the ever-present waterboat-men gnawing on segments of rotted wood.

As mentioned earlier, new studies ofbiophony and the Niche Hypothesisstrongly suggest that we may now be ableto redefine the territorial boundaries ofhabitats by their bioacoustic constitu-ents. For instance, recently, it was ob-served that certain migrating song birdsfly through grids (territories) of sounduntil they find those where their voiceswon’t be masked. Some types of frogs andtoads express territorial voices at the tad-pole stages and can be heard in shallowpools and ponds in the springtime.

The voices of wolves, elk, and coyotesdefine territory and among other signals,help determine who mates with whom,

and which individuals are allowed to re-main within the herd or pack.

A few years ago, just outside theboundaries of Glacier Bay at the HubbardGlacier, we made the first recording ofthe entire glacial mass slowly moving overthe ground creating the moraine beneathby burying a hydrophone deep in a cre-vasse and picking up the forceful vibra-tions of ice in motion.

Using this as a template, the staff (orinterns) might draw up its own list ofunique biomes, creature, and non-crea-ture sounds that are accessible to visi-tors with little or no experience. Lots offolks like lists where they can check offthings seen or heard. Encourage visitors,also, to travel with binoculars and regionalbird and mammal guides so they canidentify what they have heard (assumingwhat is heard can also be spotted).

After the visitors have familiarizedthemselves with one spot, have themmove a few hundred feet away and listento the different ways in which naturalsoundscape defines their new location.What is different? What is the same? Ex-plore its acoustic boundaries to get asense of its shape as defined by sound.The vegetation may look the same. Somight the geological features. However,the biophony is different simply becausethe creature mix is defining the territorywith even more articulation then is seenthrough our eyes, alone. This may be afactor of the territorial syntax of one ormore bird species, groupings of insects,mammal mix or all of the above. Make agame out of this discovery or, if the groupis large enough, divide it up into teams toidentify territories by either biophony orgeophony -- non-biological sound gener-ated by wind, water, or other geologicalfeatures such as sand.

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Program 7. Tools for enhancing andrecording natural sounds.

As binoculars aid in viewing the natu-ral world, simple audio field technologyaids the visitor’s sense of hearing. Ap-pendices I - III provide the necessary in-formation related to a range of equipmentfor introductory to intermediate levels ofassisted listening and recording, fieldtechniques, and the use of collected data.

A. Questions to ask:1. How can soundscapes and species-

specific creature sounds be cap-tured in terrestrial environments inorder to be reproduced, studied,and saved?

2. How can soundscapes and species-specific creature sounds be cap-tured in marine environments inorder to be reproduced, studied,and saved?

B. Activities1. With a small DAT, minidisc, or stan-

dard audio cassette recorder, a mi-crophone, and a pair of headphonesin hand, have visitors set up theirsystems at a site where there is awell-known biophony without thepresence of human-induced noiseand listen from this enhanced per-spective. This can be done as agroup of 4 or 5 people, or individu-ally.

2. Have visitors record small (5 – 10minute) samples of one or moresites with different aural textures.

3. Help visitors evaluate the qualityof their recordings by playing themback either as a group or throughindividual park staff involvement.

Note: Assisted listening. As binocularsand microscopes aid our vision in numer-ous ways to see objects either far away or

too small to be seen with the naked eye,so we must be willing to aid our ears inmuch the same way in order to bring habi-tats into clearer focus and to understandthem better.

To listen to ants and termites, oneneeds a small microphone and some typeof amplifier. To listen to the sounds ofinsect larvae, tadpoles, fish, or whales,one needs a hydrophone (underwater mi-crophone) and amplifier.

Assisted listening can be done easily -even for the most obsessed technophobe.If one can turn on the radio in a car orhome, this is as easy.

Among the simplest is a stereo ampli-fier/microphone combination and a pairof earphones. Total cost: $35.00 fromRadio Shack (see Appendix A for moredetails). It’s a device about the size of apack of cigarettes that hangs around aperson’s neck resting at chest level. It hasan on-off switch and level (volume) con-trol and a place to plug in headphones.This simple gadget has been known to bea life-changer.

C. Equipment needed1. Recorder or small amplifier2. Microphone/hydrophone3. Headphones

Assisted listening is recommendedbecause it is the only way to hear manyof the voices of the natural world. This iscertainly true of those sounds comingfrom marine environments. It is also trueof most of the creature world not mega-fauna in size. E. O. Wilson suggested that90 percent of the worlds living tissue wasmade up of insects and much of that wascomprised of his beloved ants. One needsa microphone to hear these wondrousvoices.

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D. Activity Site(s)1. Equipment and site-specific orien-

tation to be given by staff in thefield.

A summary of program 7 is providedin the table below.

Table 7 Description of Program 7, Tools for Enhancing and Recording Natural Soundscapes

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Interpretive.Audio media takes many forms and

can be the most powerful and most infor-mative exhibit component at a nationalpark visitor center. In public spaces, re-corded sound was first introduced to ex-hibitry in the early 1950’s, after the de-velopment of inexpensive monaural reel-to-reel analog tape recorders. Mostlythese early designs featured a singlesound source and speaker typically per-forming one of two types of programs:push-a-button-hear-a-sound, or repeatedextended linear sound loops represent-ing a snippet of a given habitat.

In 1989, Wild Sanctuary, Inc. washired to do a study on the impact of soundin natural history installations. This in-formal study was conducted at the Cali-fornia Academy of Sciences in San Fran-cisco. With feedback already in handabout the effect on personnel and visi-tors regarding sound loops (“...boring, noteducational, not informative, not helpfulto an understanding of the exhibit, etc....”)the study concentrated instead on themore common push-a-button-hear-a-sound technologies.

The theme of the exhibit was Califor-nia Wildlife. About 10 feet from the exit,a panel consisting of photographs of 5common California birds was located ateye level on a wall. Below each panel wasa push-button and a small speaker.When any button was pushed, the voiceof the related bird was played for the visi-tor. We set up a table at the exhibit exit.It took visitors an average of 4 seconds towalk from the panel to our survey table.At the table we had a CD player contain-

ing each of the 5 sounds represented atthe panel. As they left, only the visitorsthat were observed pushing all five but-tons were asked if they could identify thesounds on the CD. Of 125 respondentsover a 2 day period, only one person wasable to correctly identify all 5 sounds (shehappened to be an amateur ornitholo-gist). Two were able to identify 2 each.Two were able to identify only one birdsong. One hundred and twenty people –all ages and genders – were unable tocorrectly identify any bird song. Whenthe respondents were asked why theypushed the buttons in the first place, 78replied (in one way or another) that push-ing the buttons gave them something todo. In other words, the exhibit itself didnothing to engage or enlighten them,however the button-pushing offered thepromise of at least some kind of deliveryin return, i.e., something would happenin an otherwise static exhibit.

The push-button and sound-loop for-mats, then almost 40 years old, are stillwidely used. This format gives the design-ers the feeling that they were at least try-ing to inform the visiting public and pro-vides a technology that is affordable, evenif it brings little or nothing to the value ofthe exhibit. Still, the largest percentageof dollars and time is the expertise beingthrown at the three-dimensional seeablecomponents of the exhibitry. Our pro-clivity as a culture is to focus on visualaspects of the natural experience. Fordesigners and fabricators, sound has notbeen considered a primary componentof their design for two reasons: they havenot grasped the power of the aural me-

VI. Use of Natural Sounds in Visitor CenterPrograms

36

dium and earlier paradigms still domi-nate.

While delivery and interpretive tech-nologies have improved radically over thepast decade, there are clear signs thatvisitors are more and more drawn to thedrama created by well-delivered audiomedia. To test the impact of this thesis,try a modest presentation: With a $16.00themed CD representing a soundscapefrom any type of habitat, four speakers,a surround amplifier, and a CD player,place a group of visitors in a room with-out other distractions, and play the ma-terial for them. Our experience has shownthat this experiment will provide a moreforceful portrayal of biodiversity withdrama and depth not remotely possiblewith several million dollars of design andfabrication of resin molded trees, thou-sands of detailed and painted leaves, andthe standard mural, or any other exhibitcomponent. That is because well-pro-duced and delivered soundscapes andother types of audio programs convey bothenergy and information at the same time.No other component of exhibitry is ca-pable of this result.

The California Academy of Sciencesstudy caused a reevaluation of exhibitdesign installations. Technology now ex-ists that integrates all performance as-pects of exhibitry -- lighting, sound, in-teractives, electro-mechanical, videosanything designed to engage visitors withcomprehensive programs. These systems:

1. Control all media throughout anexhibit eliminating competition be-tween other exhibits,

2. Identify (in real time) what is beingheard in the context of a holisticperformance,

3. Control levels as a factor of crowddensity so that they are alwayscomfortable,

4. Provide non-redundant perfor-mances of sounds of the naturalworld more or less as they wouldbe experienced in the wild. Thisfeature also engages visitors witha new adventure each time they re-turn to an exhibit venue while pre-serving the sanity of the folks whohave to work in proximity to exhibitareas and hear the same programrepeated over and over again.

With the aid of GIS mapping and reso-lution, visitors could get a sense ofsoundscape in any part of the park. Bylogging onto a web site or a visitor centercomputer kiosk, visitors would be able tofind a location and listen to samples ofthe soundscape it represents. Also, loca-tions could be revealed on a computerscreen map in sync with the soundscapeperformance. And finally, well-craftedaudio programs furnish the biggest bang-for-the-buck of almost any exhibit com-ponent one can think of. When linked toweb media, the impact is even more com-pelling.

Other forms of interpretive prod-uct resulting from the data can take theform of customized audio CDs, CD-ROMs,and streaming audio media delivered onweb sites that provides on-going, in-depthinformation about a national park venuethat visitors can take with them when theyleave the area.

Technology is now available andwithin the scope of reasonable budgetsto transmit live audio and video from parksites like the Lamar Valley in Yellowstonewhere wolf activity can be observed andheard as live action both at visitor cen-ters and on the web.

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Mixing programs for exhibitperformance, presentation, CDs ormixed media.

(1) Formats.There are many different philosophies

about mixing what we call, in the ver-nacular, finished product. Audio productis defined as finished program mixesstored on hard drive, DAT, CD, CD-ROM,sound for video, sound for public spaces(interpretive exhibits), power point pre-sentations, web sites, or interactive dis-plays. Each medium has it’s own formatrequirements. For personal use and per-formance, however, sound is usually rel-egated to either of two media: CDs orstored on hard drives for playback. Some-times it is stored on DAT cassettes, andalmost never these days, standard audiocassette since analog tape-based mediahave proven to be far more problematicand less stable for storage and frequentplayback. Indications suggest that DVDwill be a popular format in the near fu-ture since it can store more than 14 timesthe amount of data possible with a stan-dard CD.

(2) Production.With the raw material in hand, the re-

cordist needs to determine how he/shewants to represent the existing data inan exhibit, on a web site, or on a CD. Thisis the production phase. Time, space andspecies-specific programs are usually thethree options if one is re-creating a par-ticular habitat. One can do one or the an-other, or combine aspects of any two orthree in the same mix.

(a) Time - With natural sound-scapes, time is represented by do-ing a mix that features, for ex-ample, a dawn to dusk represen-tation. It can also feature a shortperiod of elapsed time like a pre-

dawn to dawn chorus or an eveningchorus to dark. (In real time somedawn choruses take as little as 20minutes while others can takemore than an hour and a half de-pending on the biome.) A naturalsoundscape can also be seasonal,say from winter through spring,summer and fall in a given habi-tat. Soundscapes can even be por-trayed annually.

(b) Space – Wild Sanctuary hascreated several exhibits where adrop of water is followed from itssource in the mountains, along itscourse through several biomes allthe way to the sea. Or have takenthe listener on a journey, say, fromthe seashore on the beach, underthe surface of the ocean, down intothe pelagic depths, then back to thebeach once again. For example,consider following the dawn cho-ruses in spring from parks on theeast coast, along the Gulf of Mexicoto the west coast.

(c) Species-specific – Occasion-ally it is important to create a pro-gram that isolates the voice of onecreature from another. When thatoption is appropriate, find the bestand clearest sample available fromany source to make the point.

(d) Combo sandwich - It is pos-sible to combine any or all threeoptions noted above, taking the lis-tener on a journey through bothtime and space, and providing high-lighted samples of individual spe-cies within the context of the am-bient soundscape like, for instancea springtime example from theTeton Valley floor through summerin the mountains.

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In a CD soundscape, the Lamar Val-ley of Yellowstone for instance, the re-cordist may have some great recordingsmade on a dawn spring morning withthe wolves howling. The visitor has re-corded these sounds over the course ofseveral days (Time) traveling from east towest in the valley. By arranging thesamples on a simple computer programfrom just before sunrise when the birdsbegin to sing to about a half hour afterthe sun comes up, the recordist can thentake the best recordings from his or hermovement across the valley (Space), in-corporating those into the mix. Frommoments where individual species wererecorded, these can then be edited andplaced at given moments within the mix(Species-Specific), after which all thecomponents (representing time, space,species-specific) can be mixed togetherin one final sound sculpture presenta-tion ( Combo sandwich).

Within exhibits, programs should beaccompanied by signage or with inter-pretive information provided automati-cally by the new technology that identi-fies creatures as they are being heard inreal time. One such delivery system iscalled the Intelligent Show System™(ISS™) developed by Wild Sanctuary inthe early 1990s. It provides the follow-ing performance options for comprehen-sive exhibits in visitor centers and muse-ums:

1. A hard drive system that mixessounds non-redundantly so theynever repeat in one’s lifetime.

2. It identifies featured creaturesounds for the visitor as they areheard in the system.

3. It changes volume or audio levelsbased on cumulative visitor pres-ence in a particular exhibit zone(when crowds are heavy, the level

rises to a comfortable but audiblelevel, and when they’re light, thelevel reduces to an equally comfort-able level).

4. The ISS™ engages visitors inter-actively, triggering events unexpect-edly as they move through a space.

5. It controls lights, electromechani-cal, and other interactive compo-nents of exhibits so that none in-terfere with others.

6. The whole system can be controlledexternally and diagnosed by modemfrom anywhere in the world.

7. The system requires no mainte-nance.

8. The system is turn-key.

Levels of expertise.(1) Visitors can derive a great

deal of joy from recording and mini-mally archiving soundscape mate-rial. Armed with a strong desire inbeing outside in the natural wildand the ability to hear, they cansimply plug in two cables, and pusha few buttons (Play, Record, Stop,and Rewind) and begin the adven-ture. These can provide very excit-ing moments and are worth all theeffort. Just watch the smiles on thefaces of those you play the soundsfor folks when you return homefrom your journey into the field.

(2) To do serious field record-ing, analysis and production, how-ever, takes time, experimentation,dedication, incredible patience,persistence, and a bit more under-standing. At this level it is pos-sible that one might sit for 30 hoursin one spot without moving to cap-ture the sound of a single creature.After all that, what the recordist islooking for may or may not hap-pen. The more knowledge one has

39

about the habitats and creatures aperson wishes to record, combinedwith a working knowledge of theequipment being used, the morelikely one is to enjoy a measure ofsuccess in the field.

(3) And, of course, there’smiddle ground here, as well. How-ever, remember that the naturalworld is full of surprises. Natureis very slow to reveal its secrets andeven the most informed naturalist/recordist is moderate with his orher expectations.

Web site audio.When creating web sites with audio, MP3

and MP4 are the most common downloadformats as of this writing. There are others,like RealAudio™, Shockwave™Audio, LiquidAudio™, QuickTime™ and more to consider,including MPEG and Java Audio. More de-tail on these can be found in a book by RonSimpson called Cutting Edge Web Audio(Prentice Hall PTR, 1998). Another source

for MP3 information can be found by down-loading the MP3 Handbook atwww.MP3handbook.com

(Note: Because these technologies arechanging almost daily, this guide will notattempt to explain what is already con-cisely documented elsewhere.)

Suffice to say that the web is a mar-velous medium on which to post audioinformation about a particular nationalpark wilderness site. If done right, visi-tors will be drawn to the site with a de-lightful aural preview of what they canexpect during an actual visit. And it canbe linked to many others of a similar na-ture.

Also by this method, one can createaudio postcards located at park conces-sions. These might take the shape of anenvelope the size of a CD (5" square) withboth graphic and an audio CD of a favor-ite site.

40

What can be learned from sound-scapes? Natural soundscape informs usabout many aspects of a particular habi-tat. Natural sound calms us, provides uswith a profound sense of place and a con-nection with the wild natural. It is at oncerelaxing and engaging, stimulating andcontemplative. To be heard and enjoyed,natural soundscapes require some dis-tance from the clamor of human machin-ery. Once we become receptive to themessages these natural interactions con-vey, soundscapes become invaluable tous. Partially conscious by artifact or in-tuition, we plan our vacations to the sea-shore, the mountains, and/or the desertactively seeking peace and quiet. Welearn that we must be particularly quietlest the urban noise we are escaping fromis shadowing not far behind to destroythe solace and joy we seek from an expe-rience in the wild.

We learn that it is emblematic thatthere is usually a TV in every hotel roomand a radio or CD player in every car. Sowe have to face the contradictions. Witheverything else shut down, the only noisewe are likely to hear in our well-sealedrooms is that of the air conditioner. Thenatural world is literally on the other sideof the double pane window, one that issealed tight, shutting out the naturalworld. Many visitors jump into a helicop-ter or light plane to see the view becausewe’re unwilling to walk the turf to reallyget to know it. By engaging in these ac-tivities, we become more removed and de-tached from the otherwise free and nur-turing powers the wild natural provides.

We forget that peace and quiet withindemands peace and quiet without.

The desire to know naturalsoundscape changes the rules and ex-pectations. To accomplish this, quietplaces must be preserved whether it’s onesquare inch of quiet as recordist, GordonHempton, suggests, or ten square miles.Most important, for both creatures andthe visitor experience, quiet listeningzones need to be identified, established,and protected within national parks. Thisis the most important lesson about sound-scapes.

By recognizing natural soundscapesas a resource, the opportunity to protectthe whispers of the remaining untouchedforests, grasslands, meadows, and coralreefs remains in the hands of park staffand visitors, alike. As visitors demandmore vigorous enforcement of quietudeand the opportunity to hear the voices ofthe natural world they have journeyed sofar to experience, quiet zones within thepark boundaries need to be establishedand educational programs expanded tosupport and channel the growing de-mand. The rustling of every leaf and mur-mur of every creature implores us to lovethe natural sources of our lives, which,indeed, may hold secrets of love for allthings, especially our own humanity. Thisdivine music is otherwise fast growingdim. This is our opportunity to connectwith this marvelous resource, to under-stand it, and protect it for future genera-tions.

VII. Conclusion

41

BackgroundThe recording of natural sounds be-

gan two days after the first public dis-play of Edison’s wax cylinder recorder inthe late 1870s. Myth has it that Edisonaccidentally captured the sound of anAmerican robin near enough to the“sound horn” so that the song left an im-pression on the wax surface of the rotat-ing spindle. At that moment, the field ofbioacoustics was born. However, it wouldtake another ninety years until this dis-cipline became a full-blown recognizedacademic topic.

Soon after the wax cylinder becamepopular, Vlademar Poulsen, a Danish sci-entist, invented his Telegraphone in1898. It was the first electronically drivensystem used to record sound. Commonlyknown as a wire recorder, it consisted ofa thin wire fed from one reel to anotherat a constant rate past an electronicallymagnetized record head. By doing this,Poulsen prepared the way for storage,manipulation and the study of large, ex-tended samples of recorded informationin more minute detail. The problem withthis technology was that the wires onwhich the sound was recorded tended tobecome crimped or knotted. Althoughediting became possible for the first timeby cutting the wire and tying knots inthe ends, this proved to be obviously im-practical and was soon abandoned.Around the same time, various forms offlat disk recording systems patented byRCA, Edison, and others became popu-lar for recording and storing sound. How-ever, it wasn’t until the late Twenties, af-ter the invention of the Vitaphone, amethod of capturing and reproducingsound for film and referred to in the in-dustry as optical sound tracks, that cap-

turing aspects of natural sound becameremotely practical.

The film industry had already ap-proached the Cornell Department of Or-nithology offering to work with the de-partment to record the sounds of birdson film. The inventors would demonstratethe technical excellence of their inven-tion and Cornell would identify the crea-tures. Light was at the heart of the tech-nology. Tiny stripes, like narrow expand-ing and contracting vertical bar codes, ranthe length of the film strip synchingsound to picture. This medium, whenread by a light projected through themoving opaque and translucent bars ofcode, would project the pattern variationsonto a photo-electric cell which wouldthen create pulses of sound. This was themethod used to capture the now-extinctIvory-billed woodpecker by Arthur Allen,Albert Brand, and Peter Paul Kellogg,who formed the first field recording teamin the spring of 1935. Also used at thistime was what Brand referred to as asound mirror - actually the forerunnerof the parabolic dish. The bulky, awkward,and heavy equipment was loaded ontothe back of an old mule-drawn wagon anddragged through marshes in the south-east U. S. to a remote location where theteam captured the elusive sound of thelast few woodpeckers left in NorthAmerica. The technology was so complexthat it required two men to operate it.

In the late thirties, when a Germangroup invented the Magnetaphone, thepossibilities of field recording of extendedsamples became even more feasible andpossible. Using thin 1/4" strips of papertape impregnated with fine particles ofiron oxide, this new medium, like its wire

Appendix A - Equipment

42

predecessor, was drawn at a constant speedacross an electro-magnetic head. The headdelivers a variable magnetic impulse rep-resenting an analog of sound that rear-ranges the particles of oxide in patternsthat symbolized the speech or music cap-tured at the input of the system. Once re-corded on tape, it could then be easily re-wound and played back and manipulatedby editing. Used as a surveillance deviceduring World War II, the technology waspicked up by the Ampex Corporation dur-ing the American occupation of Germany.Based on the German invention, Ampexengineers improved both the frequency re-sponse and dynamic quality of the audiotape by tweaking the recording electron-ics. Ampex obtained several patents on theprocess in 1948. This type of reel-to-reelsystem has endured for the past fifty years.

Between Edison’s day and the late1960s, and with the exception of research-ers associated with Cornell, very few peoplewere interested in or committed to the re-cording of natural sounds. Most chose, in-stead, to try to capture the essence of thenatural world with images on film or can-vas and paid almost no attention the prin-cipal thrust of animal communication, theirspecial voices and sound signatures. Eventhose in academia were more interestedin isolating the sounds of single creatures.This component was so overlooked that asrecently as the late 1970s the call of theAustralian kookaburra birds could be com-monly heard inserted in the sound effectstracks of both popular and nature filmsobviously shot on location in the Amazonor Costa Rica. Producers cynically thoughtthe general public would never know thedifference. To most of the public, the callof the kookaburra, as heard as early theoriginal Tarzan and Jane movies, came tosymbolize the sound of the “jungle.” It wasnot the job of the movie or TV commercialdirector to either educate or disappoint us.

Screams of red-tailed hawks are still heardover the image of bald eagles and Andeancondors.

In addition to the general lack of inter-est, there were also the problems of cum-bersome technology that was heavy, awk-ward, and limited in its recording and re-production capacities; further exacerbatedby insufficient power supplies and thetechnology’s sensitivity to moisture or otherextreme conditions that make it other-wise not terribly reliable in the field.

RecordersThere are two types of portable equip-

ment: analog and digital.

AnalogAnalog recorders come in two catego-

ries; cassette or reel-to-reel. Because reel-to-reel recorders tend to be quite heavy,expensive to buy and operate, and other-wise obsolete for field recording, this cat-egory of equipment is not addressed in thisdocument. While limited in recording qual-ity, cassette recorders provide an inexpen-sive and perfectly respectable introductionto field recording. Standard audio cassetterecorders (as opposed to mini-cassettemachines) are recommended because theysound better and the results will be lessfrustrating for the user. Portable units canbe purchased from any consumer audiosupply outlet for anywhere from around$100 to around $700 in price. Recom-mended tape is Type II (CrO2). Disengagenoise reduction (like Dolby NR which re-duces tape hiss) while recording. Ambientnoise picked up by the microphone willusually exceed most tape hiss you arelikely to hear.

Pros:1. Inexpensive introduction.2. Cheap but limited operation.3. Can stand a fair amount of abuse.

43

Cons:1. Limited quality (dynamic range and

frequency response).2. Fairly high attrition (failure) rate af-

ter relatively short usage time.3. Maintenance is required (“record”,

“playback” heads and transportmechanism, need to be regularlycleaned and demagnetized).

4. No easy way to archive sounds be-cause tape times and location meterreadings are not accurate.

DigitalDigital recorders range in price from

around $700 - $15,000+. After testing sev-eral brands, including mini-disc recorders,the Sony M-1 (Fig. A-1) system is recom-mended because it offers several advan-tages over other types of systems. The SonyD-8 is another small one and is slightlyless expensive but a bit larger and heavierthan the M-1. The M-1 is economical tooperate requiring only two AA cell batter-

ies that last about3 hours. The D-8has four AA cellsthat last less thantwo. However,one can get (orbuild) an out-board recharge-able gel-cell bat-tery that lasts 15+hours for eithermachine foraround $30 up de-pending where it

recorder takes DAT (Digital Audio Tape)cassettes which are of a size designed es-pecially for the recorder. No other typewill fit.

Pros:1. Medium priced, the equipment will

last a long time. (We’re using SonyDAT machines that are 10 years old.)

2. DAT cassettes last for anywhere from90 to 120 minutes without havingto flip the cassette (as with analogcassette recorders), allowing the re-cordist to record for exceptionallylong periods without having to worryabout running out of tape.

3. Archiving is easy because real time/date and tape time are all encodedon your recording (with Sony equip-ment).

4. They’re light and easy to use.

Cons:1. While they don’t require as much

maintenance as standard audio cas-sette machines, the head should becleaned every 20 hours or so of us-age.

2. The machine will not operate wellunder humid or dusty conditionsand special attention must be paidto its protection from these problems(a padded zip-lock bag is usually suf-ficient).

3. It will not tolerate being dropped orknocked around much without af-fecting its calibration or operation.

4. The (female) input/output connec-tors for the mics and earphones arestereo mini-jacks. These requiregreat care so pressure is not put onthem causing them to loosen. Ser-vice charges on these machines (ifyou have to send them back to Sony)are prohibitive and very time con-suming.

Figure A-1 Sony PCM M-1is purchased. In the $700 range, the M-1is so small and light (about the size of apack of cigarettes) that it fits easily into anaverage sized pocket. Recording quality isprofessional and superior to analog cas-settes. The data can be transferred di-rectly to computers for editing, analysisand/or production with no loss in qual-ity - in other words, an exact clone. The

44

5. New DAT recorder models and up-grades have ceased to be introducedto the market as of the end of 2001.

6. There are only half a dozen brandsof DAT tape now available wherethere were many in the late 90s. Thissignals a “‘phasing out” of DAT prod-uct in favor of mini-disc technologyin the foreseeable future althoughthe DAT medium is still viable andpractical.

(3) HHb MDP 500 Portadisc (mini-disc listed at around $1,545.00) offers sev-eral features worth noting for field work.Fig. A-2. Early reliable reports suggest thatthis is definitely a technology to considerif one can handle the price. For one thing,it offers a six second pre-record buffer. WithDAT recorders, for instance, from the timeone hears a bird or mammal one wants torecord until the time the “record” buttonis pressed, several seconds elapse beforethe transport engages and one actuallybegins to record. The six-second buffer inthe MDP 500, on the other hand, actuallycaptures and stores this sound in a memorychip before one hits “record” so you don’tlose the beginning of the vocalization de-sired.

Pros (MDP 500): 1.The unit is extremely rugged. Also,

mini-discs are far more rugged thanDAT tape in humid conditions.

2.It is compatible with both PC andMac formats for downloading data(featuring a Universal Serial Bus),onboard editing, sync recording,comes with many accessories.

3. While DAT tapes tend to some-times attract molds, the mini-discsare not susceptible to that type ofproblem.

4. The (disc) media is about a quarterthe cost of DAT tape -around $2.00per disc - although they are gen-erally not re-recordable as aretapes. However, since it is not de-sirable to record over our field datathat should not be an issue.

Cons:1. It is heavier (4.5 lbs) than the M1

(DAT).2. There isn’t enough information to

critique the product adequately atthis point, however indicationsfrom those who have used the de-vice point to some software andchip problems with earlier versionsthat relate to the time and datecoding and intermittent ability tostop the transport when the ma-chine is in “record” mode. HHbclaims to have improved the soft-ware and has sent both replace-ment software and the necessarychip hardware to end-users to in-stall.

Other, less expensive, consumermodel MDs (mini-discs for between $250and $300) with fewer features also existbut none of these have been field testedby Wild Sanctuary, Inc. as of this writ-ing. Figs. A-3 and A-4.

Figure A-2 HHb MDP 500 Portadisc

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Microphones (input transducer).There are several types. Some are usedfor recording terrestrial events, others formarine environments. Only basics areoffered here. Some systems are monau-ral - meaning a single-source microphonethat picks up sound within one dimen-sion and typically records on only onetrack. Others are stereo - consisting ofone mic with two pick-up elements or apair of related mics - receiving sound ina manner that provides a sense of depth,movement through space, and (in somecases) direction. Mics come in many dif-ferent patterns. The three basic patterns

are these: At one end of the scale, omni-directional mics pick up equally from alldirections (Fig. A-5).

Cardioid mics feature a kind of heart-shaped pattern (hence the name) rang-ing from hyper-cardioid (quasi-direc-tional) to cardioid (approaching omni-di-rectional) (Fig. A-6).

Shotgun mics, at the other end of thescale, have a very narrow pattern that canpick up individual sounds from some dis-tance (Fig. A-7). These tend to eliminatesound coming from the sides. Hydro-phones (underwater mics) are waterproofinput transducer systems specially de-signed for recording in marine environ-

Fig. A-3 Sharp MD (no model number)

Fig. 4 Sharp MD 722 mini-disc recorder

Figure A-5 Omnidirectional pattern

Figure A-6 Cardioid pattern

46

ments. In some instances, these can alsobe used as in-air microphones. All canbe configured to work with the recom-mended recorders.

Types of microphonesMonauralMonaural systems are usually used

to capture individual creature voices ontape separated out from the surround-ing habitat. The technique usually em-ployed features either a shotgun micwhich is highly directional, or an omnior cardioid fitted into a parabolic dish (See2(e) below). Another application for mon-aural recording is to obtain precisely cali-brated sound pressure level and fre-quency response measurements in agiven location. Monaural means that thesignal is typically recorded on only onechannel of a two-track recorder andplayed back from that single source.

StereoWhile other stereo systems exist, only

three types are considered here to keepthings simple. XY, binaural, and M-Ssystems are comprised mostly of twomonaural mics either of the same or dif-

ferent types in combination. Sometimes,depending on the manufacturer, both XYand M-S systems are combined into onesingle unit.

A. XY - (Fig. A-8) a technique devel-oped by the British almost 70 yearsago consisting usually of two car-dioid (or hyper-cardioid) micro-phones placed at a 90 degreeangle, nose-to-nose, in relationshipto one another. Omni-directionalmics may also be used. Looking atthe set-up from the top down, theright mic picks up sound from theleft side. The left mic picks upsound from the right. The soundpicked up from the left hand micusually goes into the left inputchannel of a recorder. The soundpicked up from the right hand micis usually directed to the right in-put recorder channel. With thistype of configuration, there is likelyto be a 3dB loss in the “phantom”center of the program material.

Figure A-7 Shotgun pattern

Figure A-8 XY pattern

47

Good quality mic systems of thistype can be purchased for as little$200.00 to as much as $8,000+.Some come equipped with battery-operated internal pre-amplifiers.Others - usually the more expen-sive ones - require an outboard pre-amp that can cost from $600 to$1,500+.

B. Binaural - a technique that prom-ises a spatial recording illusionsimilar to what humans hear. Typi-cally, a model of a human head isused - in some cases with a bustfrom the upper body (shouldersup). Small, high quality cardioidmics are implanted in each of theears of the head. For most profes-sionals, the results have fallen abit short mostly because of thecumbersome technologies requiredfor effective playback. While it canpick up some information fromabout 80 degrees front right, be-hind a persons back to about 280degrees front left, depending onthe type of binaural technologybeing used, there is virtually noaccurate spatial discriminationfrom around 280 degrees front leftto around 80 front right. However,when tethered to earphones, theprimary manner in which binau-ral recordings can be accuratelyreproduced, for example, one canhear the illusion of keys jingledbehind from the top of ones headto just below waist level and fromside to side. But the illusion failswhen the keys are held and jingledwithin the null zone directly infront. Mostly, with eyes closed, thelistener will experience the soundbeing moved overhead from oneside to the other. While the stereoeffect remains intact (with the -3dB

phantom center channel problem)during playback through a pair ofstereo speakers, the “surround”effect is lost. This expensive bit oftechnology with the cumbersome“head” in tow, can cost anywherefrom $6,000 to $25,000+.

However, if one wishes to experimentwith a much less expensive binaural sys-tem, the same result can be adequatelyaccomplished by tying a piece of stringaround a tree about the diameter of thedistance between the ears of a humanhead, and clip two omnidirectional lava-liere mics opposite each other at the wid-est point. Mics of this type begin at about$14.00 each at Radio Shack. Sony ECM55Bs cost about $ 400.00 each and bin-aural recordings by this method havefooled even the most hardened tech-freakprofessionals who swear by the more ex-pensive binaural equipment. If one canhold one’s head still enough and for longenough, the lavalieres can even be at-tached to the stems of one’s glasses orthe rim of one’s hat. One needs to breathevery quietly and just be sure that noth-ing rubs against the thin cables. (You’llnot only get great binaural sound, butalso a stiff neck and an excuse to visityour chiropractor.)

(C.) M-S - stands for Mid (M) Side (S)(Fig. A-9). This system, unlike the otherspreviously mentioned, combines two dif-ferent types of microphones in one sys-tem and provides the recordist five op-tional results from one recording. Some-times one mic is piggy-backed on top ofanother in a shock-mount. The top micis a hyper-cardioid pattern (M - whichprovides some directionality) while thebottom mic is a figure eight pattern (S),picking up all of the related ambientmaterial in the surrounding habitat.Hence, the term M-S. The output from

48

the Mid mic usually goes into the left in-put channel

of the recorder. The Side (figure eight)output goes into the right input chan-nel. Some current technologies combineboth systems in a single, tube-like unit.

The five results are these:

1. A quasi-directional mono signalfrom the hypercardioid mic (M),

2. The instantaneous surroundingambience gathered from the figureeight patterned mic(s),

3. A stereo result achieved by com-bining both the M and S signalsinto a mixing matrix either in thefield or the studio.

4. The recordist can derive the bestsurround result from this tech-nique. Although we employ all theother mic systems at various times,M-S is the one we clearly favor be-cause of the range of options itgives us when creating final mixes.

5. Assuming not much equalizationor other signal processing in themix, the recordist/producer candecode the M-S stereo mix to get

Figure A-9 M-S pattern

an exact duplication of the origi-nal M-S recording (using a matrix).

The matrix controls the width anddepth of the stereo image from mono tovery wide. The signal output is calculatedand derived in the following way: M plusS for the left channel, and M minus S forthe right output channel. The width anddepth of the stereo image is continuouslyvariable from mono. It is particularly use-ful since all other stereo configurations(XY and binaural) create up to a -3dBdrop in the phantom center channelwhereas the M-S system eliminates thisphenomenon. (One dB, or decibel, is anaudio term referring to the minimumlevel of change in amplitude that thehuman ear can detect) The “phantomcenter” is an audio engineering expres-sion that refers to the illusion of audioinformation appearing in between a pairof stereo speakers directly in the center.With most stereo mic systems, the dropof level in the phantom center occursbecause the patterns of the mics fail tocover information coming from that zoneat the same level as the side perspectives.

HydrophonesHydrophones such as those in Fig. A-

10 are a type of microphone developedfor recording in marine environments.

Figure A-10 Hydrophone

49

Recording in oceans, lakes or ponds,these can be made inexpensively by in-dividuals or purchased complete foraround $350.00. More expensive modelscan cost upward of several thousand butare neither practical or particularly use-ful unless one is doing arcane research.However, because of their excellent lowfrequency response, we have recorded el-ephant and hippo infrasound, in air, andburied the hydrophones under the sandwhile recording dunes singing. We havealso recorded the signatures of earth-worms crawling through the soil withthese instruments.

Parabolic dishesParabolic dishes such as that shown

in Fig. A-11 are also used primarily tocapture the sounds of single creatures,provide even greater definition than shot-gun mics but are a bit more awkward touse in the field - especially the largeacrylic or plastic models.

Usually ranging from about a foot in di-ameter to several, depending on the fre-quency range of the creature voices onewishes to record, this equipment allows veryfocused sound over a long distance. Size re-

ally matters, however. For instance, if a birdhas a particular singing range of about 1kHz(one kilo Hertz is equivalent to a rate of vibra-tion of 1000 cycles per second) or greater, adish a bit larger than 1 foot will do just finebecause it can capture a full wave length ofsound at that frequency without a problem.However, if the creature voice is a type ofmourning dove that vocalizes around 500 Hz.the dish will have to be at least double insize; 2 feet in diameter. If it’s the low gutturalroar of an African lion one wishes to record, adish about 32 feet in diameter will be re-quired and should work quite well -- exceptfor the one who has to pack and carry it.However, if one wishes to record both spe-cies-specific creatures and an ambience atthe same time, an omnidirectional mic (typi-cally the most favored by recordists using aparabolic dish) will eliminate the need to goto a larger dish to capture lower frequencies.That is because omnidirectional mics tend topick up lower frequency sound and elimi-nate wind problems better than other pat-terned mics. A Swedish company has, with anew space-age plastic, devised a collapsibleand foldable dish that expands to about 3feet in diameter that is a truly interestingcompromise. Cost: about $1,100 from Telinga.

The problem with most non-collapsiblededicated parabolic dishes is that they tendto “color” the sound. The same holds true forshotgun mics. Sometimes this is unavoid-able if one wants or needs to have an ex-ample of a single species among many. Butto some extent, all mics color the sound.

Headphones come in many types andbrands. Stereo is a must and there are sev-eral to choose from. We recommend the SonyMDR 7506 (or equivalent) among others.Under $90 a pair, these provide everythingwe need for critical listening and last a verylong time. Ours are over ten years old as ofthis writing.

Figure A-11 Parabolic dish

For those used to photography, videoor film cameras, where mostly what isneeded to shoot is available light (andoccasionally something moving), one willfind recording to be quite different. Forone thing, microphones don’t differenti-ate like our ears. We can sit across thetable from a person in a noisy restaurantand clearly hear (partially by visual con-tact) what is being said. Place a micro-phone in the middle of the same table andall you’ll hear on tape is noise and verylittle, if any, distinctive dialog. Mics don’tdiscriminate. Our ears do. While mindfullistening can be done in nearly every cir-cumstance, recording is a bit more chal-lenging. Here are different field tech-niques to keep in mind.

Picking the right transducer (mic orhydrophone)

This is matter predicated on three is-sues: taste, purpose, and budget. In theprofessional realm of recording taste,there are as many opinions as there aresets of ears.

1. Taste. Each type of microphonedelivers a particular result from acombination of factors includingmic sensitivity (ability to pick updetail from loudest to softest, fromsubtle to robust detail), it’s pattern(Appendix A, Section C), and it’sfrequency response from highest tolowest tones. All of these constitu-ents together create the charactera microphone gives to the soundbeing detected at the input. Be-cause each microphone - even ofthe same type - is slightly differ-ent, one has to pick a mic based onthe sound one likes best and thatbest represents what one expects

to hear. This is very personal andthere is no such thing as the per-fect choice—only a compromisethat approaches expectations.

2. Purpose. For this, one needs to takeinto account what is being recordedand where. If, for instance, onechooses to record in an environ-ment that has a fair amount of hu-midity, a mic system needs to befairly impervious to failure underthose conditions. Sennheiser, cer-tain Sony and Audio-Technica micsfall into that category. If a fairamount of wind is expected, onenormally would normally use eithera pair of cardioid mics or a M-Ssystem with sufficient wind protec-tion. When the normal mic windprotection fails to mitigate the prob-lem, in order to retain stereo imag-ing the recordist may wish to switchto a pair of omni-directional micsset 6 - 7 inches (15 - 17.5 cm) apartfrom one another. Omnis tend tobe less sensitive to the impacts ofwind in general.

3. Budget. This is pretty self-explana-tory. However, less expensive micsand mic systems tend to be intro-duce more noise into a recording.Also, they tend to be less sensitiveso one can expect a result not quiteas robust in terms of dynamicrange, frequency response, stereoimaging, and the fragile detail morecommon in higher end systems.Nevertheless, the Sony and Audio-Technica mic systems in the$200.00 range mentioned (above),are perfectly acceptable, useful, andprovide great value in the field. You

Appendix B - Field Techniques

will provide an adequate represen-tation of what is present in mosthabitats and under most conditionsby using mics of these types.

Philosophical note: There is no suchthing as a “pure” (usually meaningunedited) recording. Every choice onemakes from equipment to recording loca-tion is an edit. The moment one finds amicrophone that is affordable and/or thatone likes the sound of, one has made theirfirst “edit” - their first compromise (sinceno mic does all). That is because no mat-ter what the manufacturer’s claim, everyindividual mic - even same brand/sametype - sounds slightly different. The vari-ous patterns, frequency response, andsensitivity calibrations all play a majordetermining role in this issue. The exactbiome location one chooses to recordcombined with the direction one points amic and the window of time the tape be-gins to roll, determines a second type ofedit. Since time on DAT tape or mini-discis typically limited to either 90 or 120minutes, this window creates the third.Then there are issues of what material therecordist thinks best represents the habi-tat keeping in mind that maximum timeon a CD is limited to around 74 minutesgiven current and common technology.Finally, and not least important, the man-ner in which the material is presented ina final mix on CD or audio tape consti-tutes the most important editing choiceof all.

Recording is an illusion. Any record-ing is an effect of sound as received andprocessed by all the technology being ap-plied to capture and mix it. Recordingnatural soundscape is also an abstrac-tion (one gets only what the mics pick up- not what human ears hear or what isactually out there). All the elements in thechain of events from choice of time and

place, technology, medium (CD or tape),to playback system, play significant rollsin how the information is received by thelistener. To create the best illusion, oneneeds to choose the best components inthe chain that come closest to what youlike to hear and that you feel will bestrepresent your final mixes.

Field Problems

Wind.Where wind is an issue, choose a mic

system that features good wind protec-tion. Even the best field mics with su-per-expensive defenses cannot withstandwind gusts of more than 6 or 8 miles perhour without some interference.Windscreens come with almost all mics -some systems better than others. Note:As noted previously, omni mics are theleast sensitive types to use for wind at-tenuation. In a windy environment, it isdesirable to set the mics - typically theSony ECM 55B lavalieres - very close tothe ground (if not on the ground) amonggrasses or bushes where the gusts willnot overload the input. This will changethe sound somewhat (loss of low fre-quency because of ground attenuation).Again, all recording is a compromise.When using the M-S system, either twoSennheiser mics, an MKH 30(hypercardioid) and an MKH 40 (figure-8); or two Schoeps consisting of a 541(hypercardioid), and a figure-8; it is rec-ommended that one choose the systemwhich is less sensitive to high wind (usu-ally the Sennheisers). These are set on aRykote mount that can be perched on atripod. Then each of the mic capsules arecovered by a special type of acoustifoam(porous rubber) screen, then with whatlooks like a nylon covered zeppelin, which,in turn, is covered by a “fuzzy” that looksa lot like an furry animal created by Jim

Henson (Fig B-1). There is also a type ofhigh wind cover for the Rykote.

Rain and humidity.Rain and humidity are always an is-

sue when recording. If either are likely,mics like the Sennheisers or the SonyECM 55Bs work especially well. That isbecause omni patterned mics seem tomitigate wind problems better than other,more narrow patterns. Another mic thatis inexpensive and works in wet or windyenvironments is the Sony ECM 957 orthe Audio-Technica AT822, stereo micsystems that are a bit less sensitive thanthose noted above, and cost around$200.00. The Schoeps will fail in highhumidity with sustained use. That isbecause it is a traditionally constructedcondenser mic. Even though the othersare also condensers, they are a bit morerugged and seem to be able to withstandmore exposure to the elements.

The Schoeps system tends to be moretranslucent and sensitive - qualities weprefer. But we find that this system can

Figure B-1 Fuzzy

only be used under the most optimal con-ditions. Unfortunately those moments arerarely found in the natural world.

What happens when mics fail? Re-cently, while on a summer bioacoustic tripto S. E. Alaska, an older sound recordistfound herself some distance down the trailfrom her tape and battery supplies. Awonderfully close Swainson’s thrush hadjust begun to sing. However, she forgot tocheck the battery that powered her ste-reo mic and it went dead. Rememberinga detail brought up during a “what if...?”review session, she plugged her head-phones into the mic input and used theheadphones as a stereo mic system tocapture the thrush in a very credible re-cording — obviating her need to walk sev-eral round trip miles through muddymuskeg to get batteries for her mic.

Experiments.AntsFor carpenter and several other spe-

cies of ants, try a lavaliere mic and lay iton top of an ant hill covering main en-trance. As they gather underneath to clearthe hole, some will stridulate. Make cer-tain your recorder or amplifier is switchedon and that you’ve shared your head-phones with visitors.

Aquatic creaturesOther than the usual suspects (whales,

dolphins, seals, etc.) many species of fishhave acoustic signatures created by ei-ther gnashing their teeth on coral, creat-ing sound with their swim bladders, orotherwise creating distinctive noises. Onecan drop in on tide pools by the oceanand lower the hydrophone into the bel-lies of anemones. They make terrificsounds. Likewise, the barnacles and rock-fish which occupy similar biomes makegreat subjects.

Sand dunesEncourage visitors to climb a sand dune

(like the Kelso Dunes off the Kelbaker Road,north of Highway 40 between Barstow andNeedles, California) and bury a hydrophonejust under the surface about 30 yards downthe leeward slope from the top. (The reasonto use a hydrophone is because of the strongdesert wind usually prevalent on the dunesurface affecting regular microphones.) Onecan initiate a sand boom by either kickingsand down off the crest, or sliding down ontheir butt. The dune will burst into a very lowfrequency song that is exceptional to hearand record. The sound will be loud so makecertain visitors who are recording are informedto keep the input levels of their recorder lowerthan usual. The phenomenon of singingdunes has been part of S. W. Native Ameri-can mythology and also recounted in thejournals of T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence ofArabia).

PoolsVernal pools left after a spring rain are

loaded with insect larvae, tadpoles, andwaterboatman - all singing! (We are using“singing” and “vocalizing” in a loose sensehere to designate creature-initiated noisewhich may, in fact, indicatestridulation).These micro-habitats can befound in a wide number of locationsthroughout most parks. The insect larvaeseem to be most active when the angle ofthe sun is high in a cloudless sky althoughthere is some activity most spring and sum-mer days. We’ve never tried recording inthese pools during winter, but there mightalso be activity at these times.

Crickets(see Chapter III, Educational Pro-

grams...)

GlaciersGlacial mass of ice moving over land

can be captured by dropping a hydro-phone down into a crevasse of the mov-

ing body of ice. What one hears is theterrifying and powerful low frequency (sig-nature) of the glacier moving slowly overthe ground and, in the process, creatingthe moraine. Typical of glacial movementthroughout the world, these sounds canonly be captured on digital equipment(DATs, in particular).

Points to note:The elements that affect recording

most are:1. Wind2. Humidity (rain, dew, etc.) affect

both the mics and (DAT) recorder3. Mechanical noise (including auto

traffic, leaf blowers, chain saws,snowmobiles, aircraft, ATVs, ORVs,trail bikes, music from boom-boxes,from as far away as 20 miles if windand other climatic conditions aresufficient)

4. Humans talking, moving5. Extraneous background noises like

streams, effect of wind in the trees,grass, and domestic creatures(dogs, roosters, cows, etc.), unlessspecifically desired.

Elements that affect the equipment:1. Insect repellent. Never, touch any

non-metallic part of one’s equip-ment with a repellent that containsdeet (N.N. diethylmetatoluamide),the main ingredient of many repel-lents. It will dissolve anything itcomes in contact with. It will liq-uefy paint and even affect the spe-cial qualities of Gortex. If mosqui-toes tend to think of the visitor asa resource for food, advise them towear latex surgical gloves. In thesummer their hands will sweat, buttheir earphones won’t melt whentouched if they happen to havesome residual deet on their digits.

2. Moisture. The author once acci-dentally dropped a new Sony D-10 Pro DAT recorder into a puddlein a rainforest that cost a bundleto get to (not to mention the costof the recorder). Despite severaldays of trying to dry it out withblow dryers and every other avail-able means, the moisture got it.The fall to the ground did not de-stroy it, but the moisture ensuredthat it never worked again. Equip-ment must be kept dry, especiallythe tape supply. Dry equipment =happy field recordists.

3. Dust and sand. The transportmechanism of DAT machines isquite sensitive to any foreign ele-ment. It must be kept clean.

Elements that will make arecordist’s life easier (and can’t beemphasized enough).

1. Always check the batteries beforegoing into the field. Make sure ev-ery component that needs them hasa fresh supply.

2. Have a sufficient supply of tape andbring extras.

3. Visitors and staff need to make cer-tain they have the equipment theyneed (recorder, right mic for the job,earphones, flashlight, notebook,pen, a bottle of water, rubbergloves, insect repellent, etc.).

4. Visitors and staff need to take spe-cial care to protect their mics andrecorder from moisture and dust bycarrying a liberal supply ofuncompromised zip-lock bags withthem.

Recording set upOnce an appropriate site is found,

these are the items to check:

1. Make certain that the “input” and“record” levels are set so they won’toverload or distort.

2. Always slate the recording withtime, date, location, and a brief de-scription of habitat and/or crea-ture-life. This can be done at eitherthe beginning or end of the take orboth. Do not assume that the re-corder is set with the right infor-mation. Also, playback might takeplace on equipment that does notread time/date information.

3. Once the set-up is secure, detachthe headphones (it’ll save about athird of the recorder’s battery life)and move away from the mics 25ft. or more. Sit (or stand) still anddon’t shuffle feet.

Field techniques for finding crea-tures and locations.

Easy-to-grasp methods and trouble-shooting. As with listening, encouragevisitors to find a quiet location that hassounds they want to listen to and record.It can be defined by a type of bird, mam-mal, insect, amphibian, or fish. Or theycan look for a particular type of habitatlike, for instance, riparian, coniferous,edge, meadow, muskeg, seashore, smallor large stream, various desert biomes(high and low altitude), coastal, estuary,mangrove swamps, sub-tropical swamps,etc. Ask them to try to find both a timeand place where there is only naturalsoundscape without human noise or do-mestic animal sounds. This is usuallybefore, during, or just after dawn and lateevenings. If chosen carefully, it can be anumber of times during the day. That isbecause, where there is sound at dawnor dusk there are likely to be usefulsoundscapes at other times even thoughthe density may be significantly lighter.

In the National Park Service publica-tion, The Nature of Sound, referencedearlier in this text, Miriam Graham’s fieldprogram was mentioned briefly (ChapterV, Programs and Activity Sites). Grahamalso identified a list of creatures onemight listen to and record in desert envi-ronments. The following is what she of-fered:

CANYON WREN

One of the most typical sounds ofthe desert canyons was described bynaturalist Robert Ridgeway in the1860s in terms of water: “a cascadeof sweet, liquid notes, like the sprayof a waterfall in sunshine.” Seldomseen but often heard, canyon wrensinhabit steep-walled canyons, usu-ally with water in the bottoms. Thecanyon wren is a reddish brownbird with a white throat andbreast, speckled plumage, and a tailsticking up as it nervously pokeswith its long bill into every crevicelooking for insects and other inverte-brates to eat. You can hear thesewrens year-round in Canyonlands.

BLACK-CHINNED HUMMINGBIRD

The canyon wren isn’t the onlyanimal in the desert to call up im-ages of water. The hummingbird isthe “Rainbird” to the southwestnative peoples. According to a Pimastory, at one time, the wind andthe rain spirits left the people.Since they were dying of thirst,they sent out many different ani-mals to bring back wind and rain,but none were successful. Finally,the hummingbird offered to help.The people scoffed at him at firsthe was surely too small (a black-chinned hummer weighs about asmuch as one golden eagle primaryfeather!) and weak. But they weredesperate, so they gave in. The

hummingbird asked for one thing:some strands of the chief’sdaughter’s beautiful long blackhair, which he wove into a rope.

Now, if you’ve ever watched hum-mingbirds, you know that they areincredible flyers. They migrate fromMexico every spring, flying at about25 to 30 miles an hour but, if theycatch a tail wind, they can go per-haps twice as fast. This hummer hada white tail feather, which alwayspointed to the wind. As he flew, hefollowed the direction of this magicfeather and it brought him to theplace where the wind and rainspirits were hiding. In an instant,he tied them up with the hair-ropeand told them that if they didn’tcome back, he would never untiethem. That’s how the hummingbirdbrought rain back to the Pimapeople.

WHITE-THROATED SWIFT

You may be more likely to hear the“whoosh” of a white-throated swift asit zips over your head if you’restanding at the edge of a cliff. Theymay be the fastest birds in NorthAmerica. They’ve been observedescaping the midair attack of aperegrine falcon at about 200-mph!

They’re black, swallow-like birdswith white on the throat and under-side, and long, slender pointedwings which they hold out stifflywhile flying, and a forked tail. White-throated swifts are actually closercousins to hummingbirds than toswallows.

White-throated swifts spend most oftheir time in the air. They even matein the air, free-falling and swoopingback up before they hit the ground.In fact, their feet are so weak theyhave trouble taking off when they do

alight on the ground. Their Latinfamily name, Apodidae, means“without feet.” They can be seenyear-round in Canyonlands thoughthey seem to hibernate during thecoldest weather.

RAVEN

“Ghastly grim and ancient raven,wandering from the nightly shore,Tell me what thy lordly name is, onthe night’s Plutonian shore! Quoththe Raven, ‘Nevermore’. “

The raven, to Poe, was an evil omen.Europeans have also consideredravens a symbol of death, but Ameri-can Indian tribes have a betteropinion of them: according to theNorthwest tribal people, the raven’srole is similar to the coyote’s role inthe Southwest, that of a creator andalso a trickster.

Either way, humans have never beenindifferent to ravens, perhaps be-cause they are so big and so black,and always seem to be hoveringnearby. Even Jesus talked aboutravens. He said, “Consider theravens, for they neither sow norreap, which neither have storehousenor barn, and God feedeth them.”And it’s true — ravens never seem tolack for food. They are both predatorand scavenger, feeding on carrion,killing live game, dining on the eggsof other birds, and even eatingplants. They sometimes accompanyother predators to feed on their kill:in the days of the great bison herds,ravens would travel along with theherds, taking advantage of a carcassif an animal happened to die.

PINYON JAY

Unlike ravens, their close cousins,pinyon jays, do have storehouses.These nuts are their favorite food,

and they may become your favoritefood if you try one! (Pass pinyonsaround.) Pinyon jays collect theripe nuts of pinyon pines in the falland cache them on the ground,usually far away from the tree. Thejays eat most of the nuts through-out the winter, but the ones theyleave eventually sprout and startnew trees. By taking the nuts faraway from the parent tree, the jaysensure the genetic variability ofthe pinyon tree population. It’s atrue partnership. While other birdsare settling down for a winterroutine of survival, pinyon jaysactually begin their mating seasonin November after they have had achance to collect a large store offood. The pinyon tree has a bumpercrop of nuts every six to sevenyears, and on those years, pinyonjays may hatch several clutches ofeggs.

The pinyon jay is an all-blue bird.Like the raven, it is a corvid, a fam-ily of birds that includes ravens,jays, crows, and magpies. Corvidsare social birds, and pinyon jaysoften fly in flocks, calling as they fly.

PEREGRINE FALCON

This sound was almost gone fromthe world at one time. In the late1940s, its numbers suddenly anddrastically declined, so that it wasextinct in the eastern U.S. andalmost extinct in the West.

Scientists found high amounts of thepesticide DDT in the birds that hadeaten small birds, which in turn fedupon insects sprayed with DDT.They also found that DDT was caus-ing the eggs of the peregrines to beso thin that they would usuallybreak before hatching. In 1970, theperegrine falcon was placed on theEndangered Species List, and in

1972, DDT was banned in the U.S.from most uses. (Unfortunately, it’sstill used in some Latin Americancountries where peregrines mi-grate.)Just taking DDT off the marketwasn’t enough to bring back theperegrine, so an eleventh hour recov-ery effort started. In some cases,biologists placed peregrine falconeggs in foster parents’ nests. Theyalso raised the falcons in captivityand then released them into thewild, and in other instances, allowedeggs to hatch in captivity, and thenplaced the young birds in wild per-egrine falcons’ nest. This was aheroic act, because not only doperegrines live high up on cliffs, theyalso have very sharp talons and theyhate being disturbed!

The recovery efforts have been suc-cessful, and today you can seeperegrines hunting for pigeons offurban skyscrapers as often as youmight see them cruising the cliffs ofCanyonlands. They’re as thrilling towatch as to hear as they soar highover their prey, suddenly droppingdown and nailing a smaller bird atspeeds of up to 200 miles an hour.

GREAT HORNED OWL

The great horned owl is the mostcommon and widespread owl inNorth America, and probably thebird most often heard in the movies!It is a large owl, brown with blackbarring and feathery tufts that looklike ears but are not. Its actual earsare two asymmetrical openings onits head, and its whole face func-tions as an outer ear. The shape ofthe owl’s face is like a satellite re-ceiver for sound.

The creatures noted above are bestheard and recorded when the habitat is

especially quiet, i.e., free from human-caused noises. Microphones hear indis-criminately and it is surprising at howmuch they pick up - particularly soundthat’s not wanted. Visitors need to knowthat they may hear roosters and dogs fromfive miles away. If they’re in hilly coun-try, advise them to find places within the“shadow” of human noise (the oppositeside of a hill from a road, for instance).Since road noise travels some distance,they may have to be at least a mile dis-tant to expect quiet - sometimes ten oreven more. Finding locations upwind fromunwanted noise sometimes helps. If it’svery windy and the creature sound islouder and more distinctive than the ef-fect of wind (leaves rustling in trees, forinstance), we encourage the use lavalieremics and place them on the ground shel-tered by a tree trunk or grasses.

To record wind, remember that it can-not be recorded, per se. One can onlyrecord its effect. However, omni mics arethe best for this purpose. For pitchedwind (that sounds like a kind of whis-tling with the frequency moving up anddown), the recordist needs to find an oldpiece of barbed wire along a fence linethat whistles as the wind blows. Otheroptions (if the wind is blowing hardenough) include a partially open window,broken reeds, wind catching snags on acorner of a wood-frame structure like abarn or an old house. Recordists need tomake sure that their mic elements arenot directly receiving the blast or theywill overload the input of the mic, theirpreamp and/or recorder, resulting in dis-tortion.

If the visitor wants to record ants, thereare several species that can easily be re-corded. For example, carpenter ants(Camponotus pennsylvanicus), commonin many places, and harvester ants

(Pogonomyrmex maricopa) are simple tofind and easy to record. Others abound,as well. If it’s a hot, sunny, relatively wind-less spring or summer day they will likelyget fine recordings after laying a lavaliermic over the entrance hole to the nest.

Tide and fresh water vernal pools arefilled with the “voices” of wildlife. Drop ahydrophone into either venue. As men-tioned previously, in a tide pool, particu-larly along the Northwest coast, one canhear anemones, rockfish, and barnacles.In the fresh water pools and ponds, onecan listen to and record water boatman,insect larvae, and even (we think) sometadpole sounds.

The most difficult of any non-biologi-cal sounds to record are marine soundslike ocean waves and streams. Here aresecrets worth noting. It is best not to picka breezy day to begin this process. Any-one who wants to capture the essence ofwave action will need to layer the texturesand mix them in the studio. Here’s how:

1. One should record wave samplesup the beach away from the water’sedge -say about 50 yards if that ispossible. One wants their mic(s) topick up an impression of distance,atmosphere, and rumbling surf.Record long samples moving closerto the water, a bit more than halfthe distance from the location of thefirst recording nearer to the water’sedge just at the point where yourmic system begins to get the detailof curling waves crashing and dis-tinct surf.

2. The visitor needs to record longsamples of closely mic’d impres-sions of the water lapping at one’sfeet where they distinctly hear the

bubbles bursting in the sand.When these three stereo elementsare combined in the studio, the il-lusion will be visual, powerful, andpalpable.

Thunder and storms are great fun totry. Just remember to take the head-phones off your head (so you won’t endup like Joan of Ark should lightning ac-tually strike your microphone). Set theinput levels of your recorder and pre-ampvery low and hope the big one comes.

The most interesting of all is the re-cording of whole soundscapes. That is be-cause the soundscape (biophony) definesa biome as clearly as its visual constitu-encies. Research, archiving, and inter-pretive themes for exhibits centered onre-creating soundscapes representingwhole habitats are our immediate goals.Biophonies sound like the best of thegreatest symphonies ever written and canbe listened to over and over if recordedand mixed properly. After finding a loca-tion - sometimes hiking several miles toget to one - we use any of the stereo for-mats mentioned previously. Choices ofmic systems are dependent on expectedhumidity, temperature, wind, creatures,and the illusion we wish to obtain antici-pating how the recording will be usedwhen brought back into the studio formixing.

Concern in the field is always weightand bulk of your equipment. A normalequipment load isn’t heavy: a recorder(with tape and battery supply for 10 days),the lavalieres, and set of headphones canbe as light as about 3 lbs.

IdentifyingIt’s always recommended that visitors

take a pair of binoculars into the field toglass what they hear. They won’t alwaysbe successful seeing hidden creatures -particularly in low or no light and heavyvegetation. There are many excellentguides to North American birds, mam-mals, insects, amphibians, and fish thatyou might encourage visitors to have onhand.

Absent visual contact, there are anumber of birding-by-ear, mammal, andone amphibian guide available throughstores like Wild Birds Unlimited, REI, andthe Cornell Library of Natural Sounds.Unfortunately, there are no known au-dio insect or fish guides available. If youare unsure, another option would be tohave recordings reviewed by a naturalistfamiliar with fauna local to the visitor’sarea of interest. Have him/her listen tothe data and note times of occurrenceson the DAT tape or CD so archiving willbe possible. More references can befound in the bibliography of this guide.

Cataloguing or archivingThere are three stages:AuditionAudition the tape taking careful notes

on the slate information, cues, date/day/night and tape times, species ID, quality

of recording (5 excellent, 1 poor), andother special notes. The entries on thepage look generally like the table below.

BackupIt is strongly recommended that one

create back-up copies of the material.Until very recently both DAT and CD cop-ies were recommended. However, becauseof both time and cost issues, new para-digms suggest backing up only to CD andstoring the disks in separate locations forsafety. Recorded data is not consideredeither safe or archived unless it is on,copied and stored properly. Too manygreat libraries have been lost to floods,hurricanes, fire, and earthquakes, not tomention just plain vandalism or careless-ness. Some libraries are archiving theirmaterial with 24 bit/98kHz sampling.However, for most material, this is notnecessary or recommended at this timeunless one has access to a 24/98 DVDsystem. Otherwise, this method is toomemory intensive.

The final stage in archiving is to cre-ate a template that serves the purposesof easy access, complete provenance ofthe recording, and cross-referencedrecords that all can read. Our formatschange from time to time depending onour requirements. The sample below il-lustrates the information one might in-

Appendix C - Applications of Acoustic Data

corporate. The data base shown is FileMaker Pro for Mac. Similar software isavailable for PC. The data with this soft-ware is usually transferable to other typesas they emerge on the market. As withany equipment, pick something you’recomfortable using and that will meet ex-pectations.

The categories selected for this sampleare as follows:

Library ID# = the highest numberconsecutive recording noted in thelibrary.Title = this is useful to note if it is acompleted project.DAT# = the highest number con-secutive DAT in the library.Mini-Disk (MD) # =PNO = Program (or cue) number onthe DAT.Duration = length of cut (cue or pro-gram)Analog tape = as distinguished froma DAT tape. Should have separatenumbering system.N/R = refers only to analog record-ing noise reduction systems likeDolby SR.Absolute Time Start/End = refers tobegin and end times of each cue ontape.CD # = the highest number con-secutive CD backup recording in thelibrary.CD Cut# = self-explanatory

BIOLOGICAL DATACategory = bird, mammal, fish, am-phibian, etc.Biome = as in Arctic, boreal, desert,sub-tropical, tropical, etc.Aquatic Habitat = fresh or salt,stream, lake, pond, marsh, swamp,etc.Terrestrial Habitat = self-explanatory

Common Name = self-explanatorySpecies Name = self-explanatorySex = self-explanatory# of Individuals = self-explanatoryVox type = actual vocalization, stridu-lation, arrival, contact, feeding,echolocation, lek, song, etc.Field notes = Special informationrelated to the recording (not part ofthe template).

LOCATIONCountry = self-explanatoryState/Province = self-explanatorySite = self-explanatoryGPS = actual Global Positioning Sys-tem location.Altitude = self-explanatory

DATE & WEATHER (all categoriesself-explanatory)

RECORDING DATARecorder = if you have a number ofmachines of the same type, refer toboth type and serial number.Microphones = same as recorderinfo.Mic. Pattern = cardioid, hyper-car-dioid, omni, shotgun, parabolic, etc.Source Distance = self-explanatoryRecordist = self-explanatoryQuality = this rating is importantbecause it will help save time dur-ing production. We rate our cutsgenerally 1 - 5 with 5 being excel-lent.Type = two-track, four-track, mono,master, copy, production copy, etc.

AnalysisAnalysis, assuming raw data is col-

lected and archived properly, can yield allkinds of unexpected and useful informa-tion about a particular creature or habi-tat. Among the issues that can be deter-mined are population density of a par-

Archive information sample layout

Figure C-1 Typical archive page layout

ticular species, health of a biome, pat-terns of biophony measured by time ofday, season, as a function of weather,indicators of distribution, effect of noiseon wildlife, and changes that might oc-cur over time.

TechniquesTechniques - range from simple to very

complex and arcane.

a. Simple analysis techniques are thosethat include, for instance, the iden-tification and notation of the songsand calls of birds, voices of mammals,stridulation of insects, and differentfrog species.

b. More complex analyses might in-clude the identification of bird songby territory. It is well known that thesongs of white crowned sparrow(Zonotrichia leucophrys) varies fromterritory to contiguous territory rep-resented by regional dialect. Thesedifferences can be heard with an earsensitive to subtleties of rhythm andpitch. Also, it can be recorded andanalyzed by comparing the graphicrepresentations on a sonogram - avisual indication of time, frequencyand amplitude, of an iteration. Thereare several computer software audioanalysis programs that are easy touse and understand. Using thesame method, one can compare bio-phonies (the complex symbiotic or-chestration of creature sound) fromzone to zone in the same habitat anddifferent habitats at similar times ofday/night, season, and under cer-tain weather conditions to see whatremains similar and what appearsto change as a general, nonspecificindicator and overview. In addition,and using the same analysismethod, one can compare habitats

before and after the introduction ofhuman noise or before and after afire, clearcutting, flooding or othernatural disasters. In particular, thiscan indicate the ways in which cer-tain creature voices might bemasked and/or impeded.

c. Most complex levels in the hierar-chy of analysis levels include thecomparative study of noise-to-natu-ral-soundscape issues. This requiresa sophisticated knowledge of acous-tics, statistics, GIS (Geographic In-formation Systems) mapping, andrecording. Also, at this level, is a moredetailed measurement of bioacousticzones within zones, where biophonydefines habitat. This, like noise-to-soundscape, requires a comprehen-sive knowledge of the fields notedabove, with the additional workingknowledge of local fauna and flora.

Data structureAgain, from simple to complex, one can

arrange the data in any number of ways.Once, while recording at Gray Ranch, a500 square mile former Nature Conser-vancy site in the panhandle of New Mexico,we acoustically identified over 40 micro-biomes within the 5 square mile portionthat was studied - all within a 50 foot alti-tude variation in the Sonoran-Chihuauanhigh desert area we worked.

Keeping the data simple and accessibleis highly recommended. This includesclear, cross-referenced notes on the origi-nal recording (time/date, exact location,weather conditions, altitude, creature IDwhere possible, types of equipment used,a topographical or GIS map of the territorywhere possible, etc.), and archiving asnoted earlier in the chapter.

Applications No matter what form the structures

or techniques take, the original collec-tion of recorded data has far-reaching ap-plications. As habitat destruction, in par-ticular, and human noise, in general, in-creases, the rate of loss of naturalsoundscape is expected to accelerate.Therefore, absent the collective will topreserve and protect what remains, theimportance of recording and cataloguingwhat exists on lasting media cannot beoveremphasized. As a reference, for botheducation and general public information,natural soundscape as currently ex-pressed at the beginning of the 21st Cen-tury, is a delicate fabric scientists andvisitors will want to hear, know about, andhopefully preserve.

Conforming data for educational andinterpretive purposes

There are many ways to conform thedata into meaningful and revealing prod-ucts. In the case of education, there areusually two methods used to explainsound. Generally, these are (1) from aspecies-specific perspective, and (2) froma contextual perspective as in biophony.The studio equipment used for this pur-pose is usually digital and consists of soft-ware and hardware that can accommo-date editing and mixing of more than onestereo pair of tracks. There are manytypes available that range in price from afew hundred to well into five figures inboth PC and Mac platforms. Use mediumpriced software for either platform. Asthese products change almost daily, wewon’t make any recommendations in thisdocument but refer the reader, instead,to the nearest pro- or semi-pro audiodealer.

(1) Educational.

(a) Species-specific. Using thismethod, individual speciesare singled out from theiraural context for study andreview. It is thought that byabstracting these sounds,one can learn the individualvoices which may includealarm calls, territorial vocal-izations, song, contact calls,feeding calls, mating, etc.This can be particularly use-ful as an introduction.

(b) Biophony. By this methodof study and review, speciesare heard in context (of allother sounds in a given habi-tat) and the learner is en-couraged to distinguish pat-terns of relationships be-tween one voice and all theothers heard. From our per-spective, even though a littlemore complex, it is the pre-ferred method, because itmakes clear from the outsetthat these voices “fit” as partof a bioacoustic fabricpresent in any undisturbedenvironment. It also canmake clear the effect of noiseon natural soundscape andcreature behavior, not theleast important of which isvisitor experience in theParks.

acoustics - pertaining to the physics ofsound.

acoustic ecology - the study of howsound in given environments affectshumans and non-humans, alike. A termbrought into the lexicon by R. MurraySchafer in the late 1970s.

analog - in the field of audio recording,it refers to the transformation of audiosignals into electro-magnetic impulseswhich are then transmitted to andstored on audio tape made up of amylar backing impregnated withparticles of oxide (the size of smokemolecules) and held together by anadhesive process. As the tape moves bythe electromagnetic heads of therecorder, the oxide is reconfigured intopatterns corresponding to the audioinput. These patterns can later be readon playback as an audio signal.

binaural - type of recording system thatcomes closest to the playback illusion ofsound as we typically hear it comingfrom all perspectives (up, down, all-around).

bioacoustics - bio = life, acousics =sound. The sounds produced by livingorganisms.

biome - a specific type of habitat.

biophony - the combined sound thatwhole groups of living organismsproduce in a given biome.

cacophony - a din of noise created byunrelated sound.

cardioid - heart shaped microphonepick-up pattern.

DAT - Digital Audio Tape

decibel (dB) - the common practical unitfor the logarithmic expression for ratiosof loudness, power, voltage, current, etc.

distortion - occurs when the normalshape of the audio wave form is alteredin a manner that it no longer conveysthe information cohesively. Inprofessional terms, this occurs whenthe amplitude of a signal exceeds theability of the technology to read orrecord it. That occurrence is referred toas clipping. Another type of distortionintroduced by the inability of digitalequipment to read very high frequencysignals. This type is called aliasing. Andyet another is introduced by theinability of a microphone to read andcapture certain complex signals thatcontain unrelated harmonic content.

echo - the discernible repetition of asound in both indoor and outdoorhabitats.

equalizer – a device that can increasesignal strength in selected portions ofthe audible spectrum in a recording.

filter – a device for attenuating selectedportions of the audible spectrum.

frequency - the number of completecycles of a periodic signal occurring in agiven time span. The unit in general useis designated in terms of Hertz (Hz) andwhere 1Hz. is equal to one cycle persecond.

Glossary

geophony - non-human natural soundssuch as streams, wind in the trees,thunder, rain, earthquakes, avalanches.

hertz (Hz.) - (see frequency)

hydrophone - an underwatermicrophone.

infrasound - usually referred to asthose sounds lower in frequency (lessthan 20Hz) than the human capacity todetect.

loudness - refers to the perceivedintensity of sound. Loudness is not alwaysa measure of sound pressure level andcan be sensed as being loud by virtue ofits particular texture or timbre.

M-S - a two channel microphonesystem consisting of two different typesof mics. One is a type of cardioidpattern; the second is a figure eightpattern. The resultant recordingprovides numerous options forarchiving and mixing. An M-S decoderis required to transform a M-Srecording into a conventional left/rightstereo image.

microphone - a device that transformsvibrations transmitted through the airinto corresponding electrical signals.

mix – any choice an artist makes withregard to what remains in the finalexpression of a recording.

monaural – a single channel recordingdesigned for listening with one ear.

monophonic – a class of recorded soundoriginating from a single media track.

noise - for the purpose of thisdocument, unwanted sound. Any sound

that impairs accurate transmission ofuseful and helpful information.

octave - a difference in frequency (Hz.)of either double or half in relation to aprimary tone. In a Western, diatonicmusic scale, the eighth tone in themusical scale higher or lower from afundamental pitch.

optical sound track – a method ofproducing sound on film by a type ofnarrow bar-code-like stripe runningalong one side of the film strip. A beamof light is projected onto and throughthe stripe as it moves through the filmprojector sprockets. The beam,modulated by the dark and lightpatterns of the stripe, is picked up by alight-sensing photoelectric cell thattranslates the patterns into sound.

parabolic dish – a bowl-shapedapparatus designed to focus andcapture sound from a distance.

pitch - often perceived as frequency butmore subjective since it is dependent onboth the loudness and timbre of the soundproduced.

quiet - absence of noise but sometimesthe inclusion of desired sound.

reverberation - repetitions of soundthat are so closely spaced in time as notto be individually discernable. Thesephenomena occur in both indoor andoutdoor environments.

signal-to-noise – in recording, this isthe ratio of “useful information” orsignal (i. e. what is desirable to record)to unwanted noise (i. e. noise producedby record electronics, or otherbackground sound). If the signal is loud

enough in relation to the noise, thenoise will tend to be imperceptible.

soundscape - the entire acousticenvironment of our lives.

sound sculpture - taking sound, themedium with which we work, andsculpting it much as artists in any “hard”form (clay, metal, ceramic, etc.) do. Theresults, when commissioned to the fullestextent of our technical and productioncapabilities, are three-dimensionalperformances that fill anything from smallspaces to whole large rooms. Expressedin the pieces are textures (of a place),feelings of light and dark, negative andpositive space, kinetics, color, form,tension and release, and, of course,content (location, concept, human/environment, day/night, spatial themes,etc.). Additionally, sound sculpturesprovide listeners with experiences thattransport them to places otherwiseimpossible through the application ofalternative media.

spectrogram - (also called sonogram orvoice print) a visual representation ofsound featuring time on one axis,frequency on another, and amplitude bylight or dark gray scale of the image.

spectrum - in audio, the ability of adevice (ear, microphone, recorder, etc.)to detect or reproduce sound. Humanshave the ability to hear a frequency ofbetween 20Hz and 20kHz. This istypically also defined as the normalrange of reproducible sound in mostprofessional and semi-professionalrecording gear.

stereo - a class of recorded sounds thattypically begins with two microphones(or one system with two mic elements)set in relationship to one another so

that the illusion spatial information ofthe environment is captured. For thepurposes of this document, it includesXY, MS, and binaural recording.

timbre - the unique quality of a givenvoice or combination of voices whichcan signify the character of a particularbird, mammal or amphibian,instrument in a human orchestra, orcombinations of instruments orcreature voices (see biophony).Sometimes this sound characteristic isreferred to as tone color.

tone - usually referred to as a constantfrequency or pitch.

transducer – in recording, any devicethat either receives or transmits audiosignals by converting one type of energyinto another. These includemicrophones, headphones, and audiospeakers.

ultrasound - usually referred to asthose sounds higher in frequency (morethan 20kHz) than the human capacityto detect.

XY - a form of stereo using twodirectional mics set in specificrelationship to each other.

A

acoustic 9, 10, 12, 28, 32acoustic ecology 64acoustics 64analog 35, 37, 42, 64analysis 38, 60ants 29, 30, 33, 52, 57aquatic creatures 52archiving 38assisted listening 33audio cassette 33, 37Audio-Technica 50, 52audition 59

B

backup 59Bayaka Pygmies 9binaural 64bio-acoustics 10bioacoustics 64biome 64biophony

6, 9, 10, 11, 13, 19, 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 64

C

cacophony 64California Academy of Sciences 35, 36cardioid 45, 64Cornell Department of Ornithology 41cricket 29

D

DAT 29, 33, 37, 43, 44, 51, 64decibel 48, 64Director’s Order 47 6distortion 57, 64

E

echo 23, 25, 64equalizer 64exhibits 26, 27, 28, 36, 37, 38

F

field techniques 33filter 64frequency 10, 11, 15, 64

G

geophony 25, 26, 32, 65Glacier 31, 32glacier 53Gould, Stephen Jay 10Graham, Miriam 20, 21, 55

H

habitat health 13Hempton, Gordon 13, 40hertz 65humidity 50hydrophone 65hydrophones 48hypercardioid 48

I

infrasound 65Intelligent Show System™ (ISS™) 38Interpretive 22, 24, 35interpretive 6, 8, 18, 19, 21, 25, 27, 36, 37, 38interpretive displays 15interpretive themes 19

J

Jivaro 9

K

Kaluli 9, 13, 17

L

loudness 10, 65

M

M-S 46, 65matrix 48microphone 65mini-disc recorder 44mix 37, 38, 65monaural 35, 65monophonic 65

N

Nature of Sound 6, 55Niche Hypothesis 32noise 65noise free intervals (NFI) 13

Index

O

octave 65omnidirectional 45optical sound track 65

P

parabolic 49, 65pitch 10, 65Production 37

Q

quiet 7, 13, 15, 20, 21, 23, 29, 40, 65

R

rain 52recording equipment 30recording set up 54reverberation 28, 65rhythm 10

S

sand 14sand dune 53sand dunes 30Schafer, R. Murray 8Sennheiser 50, 52Shepard, Paul 16, 17shotgun mic 45, 46signal-to-noise 65

significance statements 18, 19Sony 50, 52sound sculpture 38, 66soundscape

6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 40, 66spectrogram 16, 66spectrum 11, 66stereo 66

T

timbre 10, 66tone 66transducer 50, 66troubleshooting 54

U

ultrasound 66

V

vernal pools 53, 58

W

Web site audio 39Wilson, E.O. 33wind 50

X

XY 46, 66

Bibliography and Recommended Reading

Abbey, Edward, Down the River, E. P. Dutton. 1982

Abram, David, The Spell of the Sensuous, Pantheon, 1996

Berendt, Joachim-Ernst, The Third Ear, Owl Books, Henry Holt & Co., 1992

Carson, Rachael, Silent Spring, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1962

Chatwin, Bruce, Songlines, Penguin Books, 1987

Eiseley, Loren, The Night Country, Scribners, 1971The Unexpected Universe, Harcourt Brace, 1994

Feld, Steven, Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics and Song in Kaluli Expression, TempleUniv. Press, 1991

Krause, B. L., Notes from the Wild, Ellipsis Arts, 1996 (with CD) Into a Wild Sanctuary, HeydayBooks, 1998

Lyon, Thomas, Noise and the Sacred, Utah Wilderness Association Review, May/June 1995.

Mathieu, W. A., The Listening Book: Discovering Your Own Music. Shambala Press, 1991A Musical Life, Shambala Press, 1994

Sarno, Louis, The Extraordinary Music of the Babenzélé Pygmies, (book & CD), Ellipsis Arts, 1996

Schafer, R. Murray, Tuning of the World, (in the United States under the title: Soundscape), DestinyBooks 1977

Voices of Tyranny: Temples of Silence, Arcana Editions, 1993 The Book of Noise, Arcana Editions, 1998

Shepard, Paul, The Others: How Animals Made Us Human. Island Press, 1996Nature & Madness, Sierra Club Books, 1982

Streicher, R. and Everest, F. Alton, The New Stereo Review, 2nd Edition, Audio Engineering Associ-ates, Pasadena, California. 1998

Turner, Jack. The Abstract Wild, University of Arizona Press, 1996

Wilson, E. O., Biodiversity, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. 1988.

Additional ResourcesGuide Books

National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Insects and Spiders. Milne, L. J., Knopf,1980

Field Guide to Insects - America North of Mexico, Borror, D. J., Houghton Mifflin, 1998

Encyclopedia of Fishes, 2nd Edition, Paxton, J. R., Academic Press, 1998

Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians, Cogger, H. G., Academic Press, 1998

Eyewitness: Insect, Mound, L., DK Publishing 2000

Coral Reef Fishes, Lieske. E., and Myers, R., Princeton University Press, 1996

Music of the Birds: A Celebration of Bird Song, Elliott, L. Houghton Mifflin Press, 1999 (Book andCD)

Organizations to Contact

Nature Sounds Society, Oakland Museum, 1000 Oak St., Oakland, CA 94607http://www.naturesounds.org. Programs and introductory field workshops.

Cornell University, Library of Natural Sounds, http://birds.cornell.edu/LNS/

British Library of Wildlife Sounds, http://www.bl.uk/collections/sound-archive/wild.html

NatureRecordists (naturerecordists@yahoogroups.com) - an informational chat format for field recordingand technology at all levels of interest.

World Forum for Acoustic Ecology, http://interact.uoregon.edu/MediaLit/WFAEHomePage

Noise Pollution Clearinghouse, Les Blomberg, P. O. Box 1137, Montpelier, VT 05601-1137, Tel.:1-888-200-8332, http://www.nonoise.org

Quiet Down America: http://www.quietdown america.com

Wild Sanctuary, http://www.wildsanctuary.com