wojnar christina 18287943 a3 portfolio christina id: 18287943 6 useful tool for engaging students at...
TRANSCRIPT
E POR T FO L I O
A S S E S S M E N T 3
ChristinaWojnar
ID:18287943| EDP223PROFESSIONALSTUDIESANDPLANNINGFORTEACHING
Wojnar,ChristinaID:18287943
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TableofContents
SECTION1Teacheridentity..........................................................................................................3
SECTION2Lessonplanning..........................................................................................................5PARTA:5toptipsforlessonintroductions............................................................................................5PARTB:2keypointsaboutlessonclosures...........................................................................................8PARTC:3usefulgraphicorganisers.......................................................................................................9PARTD:4protocolsforeffectivegroupwork......................................................................................13PARTE:Thekeypurposesofassessmentforlearningandassessmentoflearning............................15PARTF:3keyfactorsteachersneedtoknowabouttheirstudentswhenplanning............................17
References..................................................................................................................................20
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SECTION1Teacheridentity
Mypersonalphilosophyofteachingisrootedinconstructivistthinkingwherestudentsare
expectedtoplayanactiveroletheconstructionoftheirknowledgethroughhandson
experience.Thisconstructivistorientationshapesmypersonalconvictionsaboutthe
attributesofaneffectiveteacher,particularlyhowateacherachievesstudentengagement
andhowdiversityiscateredforintheclassroom.Torationalise,constructivismpedagogy
hasevolvedinresponsetotheconvincingtwentiethcenturyresearchevidenceconducted
bywidelyacclaimedpsychologists,suchasPiaget,VygotskyandDewey(Marsh,2010,p.
211;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.322).Theresearchevidenceoftheseeducational
psychologistssupersedesdidacticphilosophiesofteaching,alsoknownasbehaviourismor
classicalconditioning,whichwasdevelopedbytheoristssuchasPavlovandSkinner
(Mcdevitt&Ormrod,2010,p.12;Reysetal.,2012,p.56).Constructivismresonateswithmy
personalteachingphilosophybecauseemphasisisplacedonteachingforunderstanding
andregardisgiventotheuniquethoughtprocessesofindividuals(Killen,2009,pp.6-18).
Contrastingly,behaviourismphilosophydisregardstheseuniquethoughtprocessesand
focusesprimarilyonobservablebehaviourssubsequentofabsorbingknowledgeintheexact
samewayitisreceived.(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.164;Mcdevitt&Ormrod,2010,p.224).
Thus,behaviouristpedagogyagreeswiththephilosophybehindstandardisedandhigh-
stakestesting.Thoughhigh-stakestestingholdsanimportantroleintheeducationsystem,I
believeitshouldnotbetheendmeansoftheteachingandlearningprocess.Dependingon
high-stakestestingforlearninghasthetendencytoremovetheonusoflearningfromthe
student,whichconsequentlystiflescreativityandindividuality.Thus,constructivismisatthe
centreofmypersonalteachingphilosophysinceithasdistinctregardforindividualityand
increasesstudentengagementandmotivationbyplacingtheresponsibilityoflearningupon
thestudent.
OptimisingstudentengagementandmotivationrequiresthatIastheteacherdeeplyknow
mystudentsandhowtheylearn.Knowingstudentsandhowtheylearnincludesahighlevel
awarenessofastudent’sintrinsicmotivatorssuchasspecificinterests,preferredlearning
styles,thehomeenvironment,culturalbackgroundandsocioeconomicstatus.Ibelievethat
incorporatingfactorssuchasspecificinterestsandpreferredlearningstylesintolesson
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planningenhancesstudentmotivationandachievementbymakingculturallyrelevant
connectionswiththerealityofstudents’dailylives(SeelyFlint,Kitson,Lowe&Shaw,2014,
pp.73-74;Reysetal.,2012,p.56;Whitton,Barker,Norsworthy,Humphries&Sinclair,C.,
2016,p.231).IalsoagreewithMcdevittandOrmrod(2010)whostatethatstudentsprefer
learningopportunitiesthatprovideadegreeofautonomy,whichultimatelyguidesstudents
intoasenseofindependenceandself-determination(p.485).Theinquirybasedlearning
methodisoneexampleofapedagogicaltoolthatprovidesamultitudeofopportunitiesfor
richautonomouslearning.Moreover,theinquirybasedlearningmethodoffersample
occasionsforcross-curricularlearning,cooperativelearning,open-endedtasksandsensory
engagement.However,Nunn(2016)statesthat,“people,notprogramsdeterminethe
qualityofaschool”.Therefore,oncontemplatingstudentengagementandmotivation,I
realisethatqualityprograms,suchasinquirybasedlearning,becomepointlessifadeficitof
lowerlevelneedsexists.Deficitsrelatingtophysiologicaldemands,safety,belongingand
acceptanceintheclassroomenvironment,asMaslowoutlinedinhisacclaimedHierarchyof
Needs,areespeciallyproblematictolearning(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.290;Marsh,2008,
pp.59-64;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,pp.356-357).Thus,Iamconvincedthateffective
teachersdesignrichlearningprogramswhilerespondingtotheholisticneedsofstudents.
Effectiveteachersalsohaveanacuteinterestinthemanyinfluencesthataffectintrinsic
motivation.Respondingtostudentsinthiswayiscrucialwhencateringfordiversitywithin
theclassroom.
Twenty-firstcenturyclassroomsarebecomingincreasinglydiverse,whichnecessitatesthatI
workcollaborativelywithcolleaguesandothertrainedstafftodeviseandrigorously
maintainstudents’learningthroughrobustdifferentiationstrategies.Thediversityof
presentdayclassroomsinAustraliaisaresultofinternationalmobilitypatterns,broader
socialcontexts,alternatefamilyarrangementsandawidespreadacceptancethatstudents
withadisabilityhavethesamecommunityparticipationrightsasothers(Foreman&Arthur-
Kelly,2014,p.3;Malone,2006,p.3;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,pp.26-31).Ipersonally
believethateverychildhastheabilityandtherighttolearn.However,therealisationofthis
pursuitisonlypossiblewiththesuccessfulnegotiationandcollaborationofthewiderschool
communityandLearningSupportTeams(LST),particularlywhendesigningteaching
programsandinterventions(Foreman&Arthur-Kelly,2014,pp.83-86&204).Designing
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effectiveteachingprogramsincludesmakingappropriateadaptionstostandardised
curriculumbothintheformofIndividualEducationPlans(IEPs)orinlessdefinedways,such
asmakingsmalladjustmentstodailytasks.Theseadjustmentsshouldbemaderespectiveof
thekeylearningareasinvolvedandincludetakingmeasuressuchas:settingalternategoals,
makingalterationstothesizeoftasks,changingthemethodofinput,modifyingthetime
difficulty,orofferingarangeofoutputoptions(Ebeling,Deschenes&Sprague,ascitedin
Reysetal.,2012,p.58;Foreman&Arthur-Kelly,2014,p.205).Thus,itisclearthatIbelieve
aneffectiveteacherishighlyresponsivetothelearningneedsandinterestsofeach
individualintheclassroom.Furthermore,Iapprehendthateffectiveteachersrespondto
theseneedsininformed,flexibleandsociallyskilledwayswhilesuccessfullycollaborating
betweenthehomeenvironmentandthewiderschoolcommunity.
SECTION2Lessonplanning
PARTA:5toptipsforlessonintroductions
1. Usequestioningfordiagnosticassessmentandengagement
Effectivequestioningmaybeusedattheopenofalessontoidentifypreconceivedideas
regardingthetopicthatistobetaught.Questioningattheopenofalessonmayalso
engagestudentsandtopromptthinking.Marsh(2010)groupsquestionsintotwomain
categories,namely;psycho-socialquestions,andpedagogicalquestions(p.188).Psycho-
socialquestionsappealtostudent’saffectivedomainsandreflectrelationalqualities.For
example,theteachermayaskthequestion,‘Whatisthemostembarrassingexperienceyou
haveeverhad?’asaninspirationalprobeforwriting.Whereas,pedagogicalquestionsfocus
ontheparticularknowledge,valuesorskills(p.188).Forexample,theteachermayask,‘Can
anyonedescribewhereChinaissituatedgeographically?’attheopenoflessonon
Australia’sengagementwithAsia.Bothpsycho-socialandpedagogicalquestionspromote
socialinteractionandinitiatetheprocessingofinformationbytransferringinformationfrom
students’longtermmemoryintotheirworkingmemory(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.404;
McDevitt,Ormrod,Cupit,Chandler&Aloa,2013,pp.249-250).Therefore,questioningisa
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usefultoolforengagingstudentsattheopenofthelessonandactivatingandidentifying
students’priorknowledgeonatopic.
2. Stimulatecuriositywithaninterestinglessonhook
Effectivelessonintroductionsbeginwithastimulatinghooktoawakenthecuriosityof
studentsandultimately,drawthemintothelearningexperience.Theprocessofmaking
studentscuriousalignswiththefirststepofthescienceFive‘E’smodel,whichisdescribed
bytheterms,‘excite’,‘engage’,‘entice’and‘encourage’(Whittonetal.,2016,pp.86&
147).Onewaytoachievethislevelofstimulationistouseauthenticexamplesdrawnfrom
children’sdailylives,suchasacurrentnewspaperarticleorapopularTVshowthatappeals
tostudents’ages(Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.410).EggenandKauchak(2010)suggest
thatstimuliwhichengagesensoryfocusareparticularlyeffectiveforattractingattention(p.
402).Forexample,anintriguingdisplayofburningemptyteabagfloatinguptowardsthe
ceilingcouldbeaninterestinghookforasciencelessononheatthatengagesthesensesof
bothsmellandsight.Sensorystimulationcanbefurtherenhancedbypsychomotor
stimulation,thelatterofwhichHurstandCooke(2010)recommendbeincludedinall
lessons(p.110).Forexample,theteachermayuseaballasaninteractivedeviceduringan
introductorydiscussionwheretheballispassedaroundtheroomandstudentsgivetheir
responsetothediscussionuponcatchingtheball.Thus,incorporatingsensorystimuliand
psychomotoractivitiesinalessonintroductioncreateeffectualhooksthatmakestudents
curiousanddrawthemintotheirownlearningexperience.
3. Determinewhatcomesfirstinthesequence
Effectivelessonintroductionsaredesignedinawaythatflowslogicallyandsequentiallyinto
themainbodyofthelesson.WoolfolkandMargetts(2013)claimthatstudentsaremore
likelytoabsorbinformationandremaininvolvedwhereonestepleadsnaturallyintothe
next(p.410).Forexample,aprimaryyearlessononphotosynthesisthatbeginswithan
examinationonthebasicpartsofaflowerandbuildsintothedetailedprocessof
photosynthesisflowsmorelogicallythanabeginningwithphotosynthesisandthengoing
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backtoexaminethebasicpartsofaflower.Whittonetal.(2016)advisethatthe
introductionshouldrelate“totheworkbeinginvestigated”inthebodyofalesson,which
requirescarefulplanning(pp.147&148).Thus,itisclearthatanintroductionthatflows
seamlesslyintothemainbodyofthelessonisonethathasbeencarefullyconsideredandis
morelikelytoyieldfavourableresultswithstudentengagement.
4. Provideanoutlineofthelessonortask
Anintroductionthatincludesabriefoverviewofthelessoncultivatesasenseof
predictability,safetyanddirection.Studentswhofeelphysicallyandemotionallysafeare
moremotivatedtolearn(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.354).Therefore,alessonintroduction
thatalertsstudentstothedesiredoutcomesofthelessonisonewaytoachievean
emotionallysafeandpredictablelearningenvironment.Studentsarealsoabletosetthe
learningwithinacontextiftheyunderstandthepurposeofthelesson.Forexample,a
teachermayintroduceanartslessonbyinformingthestudentstheywillbeproducinga
paintingthatmirrorstheworkofMonetbeforeguidingthemonatourofMonet’sart.
Therefore,alertingstudents’attentiontotheaimsofthelessonandprovidingabrief
outlineofthetaskinalessonintroductionproducesfeelingsofsafetyandpredictability,
whichresultsinhigherlevelsofstudentmotivation.
5. Introducefieldspecificterminologyandcommunicatetheseeffectively
Teachersneedtocommunicateeffectivelyintheirlessonintroductionsandintroducefield
specificterminologyfordeeperlevelsofstudentcomprehension.EggenandKauchak(2010)
claimthateffectiveteachercommunicationinvolvespreciselanguagethatomitsvague
termssuchas,‘usually’,‘might’and‘perhaps’,andleadstostudentachievementand
satisfaction(p.401).Usingpreciselanguageisvitaltostudents’comprehensionlevels.Hurst
andCooke(2010)claimthatknowledgeoffieldspecificterminologyshouldnotbeignored
asthisisalanguagecomponentthathassignificantimplicationsonstudentcomprehension
(p.111).Undoubtedly,fieldspecificterminologyisbesttaughtthroughthemediumof
precisecommunication.Forexample,WoolfolkandMargetts(2013)emphasisethatthe
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exactmeaningofwordswithinamathematicsproblemmustbeaddressedbeforestudents
areabletograsptheproblem.Toelaborate,studentsmustunderstandwhattheterms
‘part’and‘whole’meanandhowthetermsmayrelatetooneanotherbeforefully
comprehendingthemeaningoffractionalproblems(p.293).Thus,lessonintroductions
shouldinvolveprecisecommunicationandexplicitinstructionoffieldspecificvocabulary.
PARTB:2keypointsaboutlessonclosures
1. Effectivelessonclosuresincludeasummaryofthekeypointsandalinktothenext
lesson.
2. Effectivelessonclosuresprovidestudentswiththeopportunitytoreflectontheir
learningandsharetheirworkwithothers.
Lessonclosuresareparamountfordrawingtogetherthemainpointscoveredduringa
lessonandalsoforsettingthelessonwithinthecontextofaunitoflearning.Whittonetal.
(2016)proposethatanequalamountofattentionbegiventoalessonclosureasthe
introduction(p.148).Thispropositionhighlightstheimportantrolethatlessonclosuresplay
insummarisingkeylearningsothatstudentsorganisethenewknowledgegainedinto
meaningfulschemas(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.406).Forexample,alessonclosureon
Australiandemocracymayremindstudentsthattheyarecitizensofademocraticsociety
andtheymusttherefore,formtheirownopinionofthepoliticalgrouptheywishtosupport.
Aclosureofthisnaturemakesthelessoncontentpersonallymeaningfultothestudentsand
leadstothemtoconsiderwhoandwhattheidealsofdifferentpoliticalpartiesaretogether
withtheirroleinademocraticsociety.Thislessonclosurealsocorrespondswiththe
evaluationstageofthefive‘E’smodelwherestudentsaresupportedbytheirteacherto
reflectontheirlearningprocess(Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.464).However,Woolfolk
andMargetts(2013)furthersuggestthatteachersguidestudentstoidentifyfuturelearning
goalsduringtheevaluationstage(p.464).Applyingthisnotiontotheexamplegivenabove
wouldbetobrieflyoutlinethecontententailedinthefollowinglessonofthatunitofstudy
sothatstudentsareabletoformlinksbetweenlessons;thus,settingtheirlearningwithin
thecontextofaunitoflearningwiththeguidanceoftheteacher.However,thelearning
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outcomeofthisteacher-drivenexemplarcouldbeachievedinotherways,suchasallowing
studentstheopportunitytosharetheirworkwithothers.
Student-centredlessonclosures,asopposedtoteacher-ledclosures,areanalternatewayof
encouragingself-reflectionandreorganisingthinking.Student-centredlessonclosuresalign
withPiaget’sconstructivistphilosophywherechildrenlearnfrominteractingwithothers
whentheycompareandchallengetheirownthinking(SeelyFlint,Kitson,Lowe&Shaw,
2014,pp.386-387;Mcdevitt&Ormrod,2010,p.196).Marsh(2010)insinuatesthatan
effectivelessonclosuremayconfront,orevensurprisestudents,thus,compellingstudents
toclarifytheirunderstanding(p.120).Forexample,atthecloseofalesson,studentsmay
beaskedtodisplaytheirworkorsummarisetheirfindings,suchaspresentingafinalpiece
oftechnologyorvoicingtheirownexplanationofamathematicalconcept.Thiswaythe
teachercanassesshowstudentshaveabsorbedandorganisedinformationonanindividual
basis,whichmayevenleadtosomedebateovermisconceptions.Thus,lessonclosuresmay
beeitherteacherledorstudent-centred,oracombinationofboth,solongasstudentsare
ledintotheprocessofreflectionandmeaningfulorganisationofideas.
PARTC:3usefulgraphicorganisers
1. InfographicsandPiktochart
Infographicsareusefulgraphicorganisersintheclassroomforpresentinginformationin
multi-modalandvisuallyappealingways.KalantzisandCope(n.d.)coinedtheterm‘multi-
literacies’inaclaimthatthecharacteristicsofnewcommunicationmediaarebecoming
increasinglymulti-modalaswritten-linguisticmodesinterfacewithvisualandspatial
patternstoconveymeaning(newlearningonline.com,n.d.).Thisplacesanimplicationon
teacherstoensuretheirstudentsdevelopasmulti-literatecitizens,ratherthan
predominantlytextuallyliteratecitizens(Bull&Anstey,2005,p.6;Hill,2015,pp.361-381;
SeelyFlint,Kitson,Lowe&Shaw,2014,p.19).Havingstudentspresentinformationinthe
formofaninfographicisonewaytonurturethismulti-modalunderstandingof
communication.Infographicsmayalsobedesignedbytheteachertopresentinformationto
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students,parentsorcolleaguesinvisuallyappealingways.Theinfographicbelowwas
designedbytheauthorusingthePiktochartwebsitetoexplainhowvocabularyshouldbe
taughtandwhyvocabularyisimportant.NotethatPiktochartisaremarkablyuser-friendly
websiteforgeneratinginfographics,posters,presentationsandreports.Thus,infographics
aremulti-modalgraphicorganisersthatarehighlyrelevanttocurrentliteracyeducation
demands.
Figure1:Wojnar,C.(n.d.).Howtoteachanddevelopvocabularyandwhyitisimportant.
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2. Conceptmaps
Conceptmapsorganiseideasintolooselylinkedschemasandnon-hierarchicalrelationships
aroundacentraltopic,whileallowsforfreeflowofthought.EggenandKauchak(2010)
statethatconceptmappinghelpslearnersmakevisualconnectionsbetweenconceptsand
cantherefore,beusedtomeasurechangesinconceptualdevelopment(p.269).Concept
mappingenablesstudentstoorganisebrainstormingonanewtopicinawaythatdoesnot
stifledivergentthinkingandcreativity.Theskillofconceptmappingishighlyrelevantto
twenty-firstcenturyeducation.Worldwidestakeholdersofeducationnowvaluecreativity,
flexiblethinkingskillsandvisualformsofcommunicationmorethantheyeverhaveinthe
past(Dinham,2014,pp.6-13;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.181,para.3).Conceptmapping
isaversatiletoolthatisnotconfinedtostudentbrainstormingsessionsalone.Teachersmay
useconceptmapstoorganiseinformationduringdirectinstruction,orforgeneratingideas
duringcurriculumdevelopment.Theimagebelowfeaturesthediversefunctionsandusesof
aconceptmap.
Figure2:Nestor,M.A.(n.d.).ConceptMapping.
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3. Tables
Tablesarehighlystructuredgraphicorganisersthataccommodateformultiplecategoriesof
dataandareeasytoreadataglance.Sincetablesmaybespecificallytailoredtosuitany
particularneed,theusesforthemintheclassroomareendless,rangingfrominformation
gathering,suchasKnow,Want,Learnt(KWL)chartstostudentattendancelists.Hill(2015)
emphasisestheimportanceofgettingtoknowchildrenintheclassonapersonalbasisby
gatheringdataattheoutsetoftheyearandthenusingthisdatatoguideliteracyprograms
(pp.67-72).ThetablebelowhasbeenadaptedfromWhittonetal.(2016,p.84)asan
exampleofhowHill’sdatamaybemanaged,particularlywhenteachinglargeclass
numbers.Atableofthisnaturedemonstratesteacheraccountabilityandmaybeusedto
assistcurriculumplanning,monitorstudentdevelopment,andfosteranacuteawareness
fortheholisticneedsofstudents.Note,constructingthetableininMicrosoftExcelwould
allowforgreatereaseasaworkingdocument.
Table1:Specificknowledgeaboutstudentstable.AdaptedfromWhittonetal.(2016,p.84).
Name DoB Gender Academic Social/emotional Physical Spiritual
ChrisLanis
06/06/2004 Boy Highachiever.Lowerprimaryportfoliosdisplaynumerousawards,includingreadingawards,numeracyawardsandacademicexcellencePrincipalawards.Runnerupinthe2011ICASScienceCompetition.
Christopherhastroubleestablishingandmaintainingfriendshipsandoftensitsaloneoutsideorinthelibraryreadingbooksorcompletinghomeworkduringlunch.However,peerstendoccasionallychoosetoworkwithChristopherforscientificexperimentsandprojects.
Standarddevelopmentalcharacteristicspresentforatwelveyear-oldincludingastrongleanbuild.Christopheroccasionallycomplainsofheadachesandisbookedforanappointmentwiththeoptometrist.
Christopher’sparentsareyearlyattendantsatthelocalCatholicChurchofwhichChristopherdoesnothaveanyobjectionsto.
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PARTD:4protocolsforeffectivegroupwork
1. Effectivegroupworkdemandscarefulplanningandconsideration
Effectivegroupworkcommandscarefulplanningandconsideration.Thiscommandarises
outoftheaimthatgroupworkinvolvesactiveparticipationbyallgroupmemberswithout
thedirectinterventionoftheteacher(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.420;Killen,2009,p.187;
Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.339).Therearemanydifferentgroupingtypestoconsider
whenplanning.Someexamplesare,homogenous,heterogeneous,eclectic,orstudent
selected.HurstandCooke(2010)recommendthatheterogeneousgroupsofthree,four,or
five,tendtobemoreinteractiveastheriskofsmallerfactionsformingisreduced(p.273).
Nonetheless,attentiontothepurposefortheactivityshoulddeterminethebestgroup
formation(Marsh,2010,p.138;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.340).Forexample,ability
groupingismoresuitablethanfriendshipgroupingforsharedreadingtasksasallgroup
membersneedtoworkwithatextthatissuitedtotheirreadingability(Marsh,2010,p.
138).Thus,effectivegroupworkrequirescarefulconsiderationofthelessonobjectivesto
determinethecorrectgroupingtypebeforeundertakingpre-lessonpreparation.
Pre-lessonpreparationforgroupworkisparamount.Thispreparationmayinclude,butis
notlimitedto,decidingonthegrouptaskandconstructingaclearsetofguidelines,
ensuringunhamperedaccesstoresourcesandmaterials,andhavingseatingarrangements
readypriortothelesson(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.421;Hurst&Cooke,2010,p.274).The
requiredresourcesandmaterialswilldependonthegrouptaskthatischosen.Some
examplesofgrouptasksincludereciprocalquestioning,Jigsaw,projects,problem-solving
tasks,orroleplay(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.421;Whittonetal.,2016,p.199).Whichever
taskisselected,theimportanceofhavingaclearsetofguidelinesandlearningfocus
remainsasitissharedgoalsthatfacilitateeffectivegroupwork(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.
420;Hill,2015,p.402;Killen,2009,p.187).Aboveall,effectiveteachersundertake
adequatepreparationmeasures,whichmeansthelearningfocus,materials,resources,and
seatingarrangementshavebeenclearlysetoutpriortoanylessoninvolvinggroupwork.
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2. Effectivegroupworkrequirestheteachertodirectbutnotintrude
Effectivegroupworkrequiresthesupervisionofateacher.However,teachersupervision
shoulddirectstudents’groupworkinanon-obtrusivemanner(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.
420;Killen,2009,p.187).Forexample,Killen(2009)suggeststhattimemanagementbe
undertakenasajointeffortbyboththeteacherandthestudents(Killen,2009,p.188).
However,expectationsregardingsocialstandardsofbehaviourneedtobemadeknown
explicitlybytheteacher,suchasacceptableformsofcommunicationandrespectforothers
(Whittonetal.,2016,p.198).Forexample,theteachermayensurethatleadershipisshared
sothatallstudentstaketurnsatexchangingideas(Hill,2015,p.403).Onewaytoensure
activeparticipationofallmembersandpreventbehaviouralissuesfromarisingistoassign
rolestoeachgroupmember.Someexamplesofgrouprolesare,cheerleader,recorder,
materialsmonitor,coachordatekeeper(Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.341).Effective
groupworkisonewherestudentscarryouttheworkwhiletheteacherremainsina
supportivepositiontofacilitategroupwork.Theteacherdoesthisbymakingtheroleof
eachstudentclearandthebehaviouralexpectationsexplicit.
3. Effectivegroupworknecessitatesaccountabilityandpositiveinterdependence
Effectivegroupworknecessitatesaccountabilityandpositiveinterdependencebetween
groupmembers.Positiveinterdependenceinvolvesthewillingparticipationand
cooperationofstudents(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.420;Killen,2009,p.187;Marsh,2010,
p.142).Toachievepositiveinterdependence,itisessentialthatstudentsaregiven
responsibilityfortheirlearningbothofthemselvesandofthegroup,whichultimately
fosterstheself-esteemofstudents(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.420;Hill,2015,p.403).A
waytoachieveaccountabilityandpositiveinterdependenceingroupworkistodesigntasks
withjointgoalsandsocialinteraction.Forexample,creatingaroleplayorbuildinga
technologicaldevice(Eggen&Kauchak,2010,p.421).Accordingly,positive
interdependencebetweengroupmembersispivotaltoeffectivegroupworkandmaybe
achievedthroughstudentaccountability,jointgoals,andsocialinteraction.
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4. EffectiveGroupworkisfollowedbyreflectionandassessment
Effectivegroupworkisfollowedbyreflectionandassessment.Killen(2009)proposesthat
teacher-ledconclusionstogroupworkaremostsuccessfulastheyleadtoalogicalclose
(Killen,2009,p.188&203).Alternatively,closuresthatincludetheopportunitytopresent
workoraskothergroupsquestionspromotesfurtherlearning(p.204).Whetherteacher-led
orstudent-centred,aprevailingpointisthatgroupworkcloseswithfeedbackthat
acknowledgesnoteworthygroupcooperation(Hurst&Cooke,2010,p.274).Marsh(2010)
postulatesthattheteachershouldfindwaysofacknowledgingbothindividual
achievementsaswellasgroupefforts(p.143).Ontheotherhand,HurstandCooke(2010)
recommendthatassessmentbemadeoutcollectivelyratherthanindividually(p.275).
Nonetheless,closurestoeffectivegroupworklessonsincorporateassessmentandreflective
practicesthatdrawstudents’attentiontocollaborativesuccess.
PARTE:Thekeypurposesofassessmentforlearningandassessmentoflearning
Thepurposeofassessmentforlearningistoinformplanningandteachingduringthe
learningprocess,whichisotherwiseknownasformativeassessment.Whittonetal.(2016)
makeacleardistinctionbetweenformativeassessmentanddiagnosticassessment;stating
thatformativeassessmenttakesplaceduringthelearningprocessforimprovementand
changewhilediagnosticassessmentinformscurriculumplanningandtakesplacepriorto
learning.However,WoolfolkandMargetts(2013)claimthatformativeassessmentmay
occurbothbeforeandduringthelearningprocess(p.503).Thelatterperspectiveon
formativeassessmentatteststothenatureofassessmentforlearning,whetherdiagnostic
orformative,asanintegratedteachingpracticethatcontinuouslyidentifiesareasofneed.
Thus,assessmentforlearningiscentredon“learningaboutchildren’slearning”(Clarke,as
citedinMarsh,2010,p.315).Assessmentforlearningisafundamentalstepinshaping
curriculumplanningandinstructionwiththeultimateaimofbringingaboutstudentgrowth
(pp.314-315).Therearevarioustoolsthatmaybeusedforformativeanddiagnostic
assessment,suchasformalandinformalobservation,analysingstudents’questionsor
responsestoquizzes,reviewingwrittentaskresponses,conductingopen-endedquestioning
andassessingprojectwork(Whittonetal.,2016,p.216;Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.
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503).Thus,theoverarchingpurposeofassessmentforlearningistofosterstudentgrowth
bycontinuouslymonitoringandimprovingthequalityandrelevanceofplanningand
instruction.Assessmentforlearningissimilarto,butnotidenticaltoassessmentoflearning.
Thepurposeforassessmentoflearningistoanalyseeducationalsuccessatthecompletion
ofthelearningprocessandtoinformfuturecurriculumdevelopment.Putsimply,the
essentialdifferencebetweenassessmentoflearningandassessmentforlearningisthat
assessmentforlearninghappensduringthelearningprocess,whileassessmentoflearning
happensafterthelearningprocess(Whittonetal.,2016,p.216).Assessmentoflearningis
alsoknownassummativeassessmentandmayincludebothformalandinformal
assessment.Anexampleofinformalassessmentistheaccumulationofexperiencesa
teacherhaswithastudentthroughouttheyear,whichfeedsintoafinalreport.Examplesof
formalassessmenttoolsaresummativeprojectsandpresentations,end-of-unit
submissions,testsandexams(Whittonetal.,2016,p.216).However,summative
assessmentmoreoftenrelatestohigh-stakestestingthanitdoestoinformalassessmentof
learning.Examplesofhigh-stakestestingaretheNationalAssessmentProgram–Literacy
andNumeracy(NAPLAN),ortheAustralianTertiaryAssessmentRank(ATAR)wherestudent
achievementismappedusingastrategicpointsystemthatoftendeterminesifthestudent
gainsadmissiontofurtherstudy(Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.503).Summative
assessmenttherefore,holdsmoreweightinthesensethattheresultsarelongstanding,
whereasformativeassessmentisfrequentlyusedtoadjustinstructionsoastoproduce
bettersummativeassessmentresults(p.503).Unfortunately,summativeassessmentis
consideredbysomeasthefinalgoalofeducation(Marsh,2010,p.315).Nonetheless,
WoolfolkandMargetts(2013)arguethatformativeusesofassessmentaremoreimportant
thansummativeassessmentastheyfocusonimprovingthestudents’learning(p.503).
Therefore,assessmentforlearningisthegreateraimofteaching.However,assessmentof
learningshouldbetreatedwithduecaresincehaslastingconsequences,suchas
determiningifastudentispermittedtoparticipateinfurtherstudy.
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PARTF:3keyfactorsteachersneedtoknowabouttheirstudentswhenplanning
Teachersmustknowtheirstudentsandhowtheylearninordertofacilitateeffective
curriculumplanning.Threekeyfactorsofknowingstudentsandhowtheylearnare;their
personalinterestsandpreferredlearningstyles,theirdevelopmentalage,andfinally,their
depthandbreadthofpriorknowledge.Thesethreekeyareasaresimilartotheareasof
knowledgethatWhittonetal.(2016)outlineasthatwhichteachersshouldknowabout
theirstudents;thesearetheacademic,physical,social/emotionalandspiritualareas(pp.84
&111).Note,thesocial/emotionalandspiritualcategoriesofknowledgeareboth
contributingfactorsthatmayinfluencetheinterestsandlearningstylesofindividuals.
However,thesearenottheonlyfacetsthatcontributetostudents’personalinterestsand
learningstyles.
Students’uniqueinterestsandindividuallearningstylesareshapedbyamyriadof
environmentalinfluences.Asmentionedabove,twosuchinfluencesarethesocio-
emotionalandspiritualrealms.However,Hill(2015)statesthatparentsandfamiliesplay
centralrolesinnurturingeducationalvaluesandbuildingfundsofliteraryknowledgein
youngchildren(p.58).McdevittandOrmrod(2010)supportthisconceptbyendorsingthe
significanceoffamily,cultureandcommunityasagentssocialisationandcradlesforsocio-
emotionaldevelopment(pp.64-91).Hill(2015)advisesteacherstotapintothese“fundsof
knowledge”foundinthehomeenvironmentbyhavingparentsfillinaquestionnaireabout
theirchildpriortoschoolcommencementandthenallowingthatdatatoguideplanning
(pp.69-70).Anotherwaytobecomemorefamiliarwiththehomeenvironmentistovisit
familiesintheirhomesandencourageparentstogetinvolvedintheirchildren’seducation
andalsoinschoolevents(p.89-91).Theinformationgatheredfromtheseeventscouldthen
berecordedandusedtoappriseplanning(Whittonetal.,2016,p.110).However,itisthen
uptotheteachertodecidehowtoapplythisinformationaboutstudentstotheirplanning.
Onerecommendationisthatteachersmodifytheirinstructiontosuitabroadrangeof
interestsandlearningstylessoastoensurestudentengagement(Munro,ascitedin
Woolfolk&Margetts,2013,p.187).Forexample,usinganinquirybasedlearningwhere
studentsaregivenachoiceoverhowtheyapproachandpresentworkonatopicwithin
certainguidingboundaries.Thus,ithasbeenmadeclearthatthehomeenvironmentplaysa
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chiefroleinthesocio-emotionaldevelopmentofchildrenandtherefore,presentsarich
fundofknowledgetobeunearthed,documentedandtakenintoaccountforeffective
planning.Thisdocumentedfundofinformationmayalsoincludevitaldataaboutthe
developmentalageandabilitiesofstudents.
Thedevelopmentalageofstudentsdeterminesthebehaviouralnormsandphysicalabilities
thatmaybeexpectedofstudentsrelativetotheirchronologicalage.Therehasbeenmuch
discussiononthetopicofphysicalandcognitivedevelopmentinthelastcentury,which
includesseveraldevelopmentaltheoriesandthenatureversusnurturedebate(Marsh,
2010,p.45;Mcdevitt&Ormrod,2010,pp.4-29;Woolfolk&Margetts,2015,p.70).Though
therearevaryingopinionsandideas,acommonthreadisthat“thefieldofchild
developmentseekstoidentifyandexplainpersistent,cumulative,andprogressivechanges”
inordertoassisteducatorsinpitchingtheirplanningattherightlevelfortheirstudentsso
thattheyarechallengedbutnotoverwhelmed(Mcdevittetal.,2013,p.4;Woolfolk&
Margetts,2015,p.98).Whatevertheage,McdevittandOrmrod(2010)maintainthatthere
isastronglinkbetweenphysicaldevelopmentandcognitivedevelopment.Forexample,a
childiswhoisphysicallystrongenoughtomovefreelyismorelikelytoexplore(p.76);or,a
childbetweentheageofsixtoeightyearsisfarmorelikelytobecomefatiguedbyphysical
andmentalexertionthanoneagedbetweenninetotwelveyears.Thelatterisanagewhere
flexibility,balanceandconcentrationaresignificantlyincreasedincomparisontothe
former.Hence,ninetotwelveyear-oldstypicallybenefitfromvigorousphysicalactivities
andlongerlessondurations(Whittonetal.2016,pp.223&225).Clearly,teachersneedto
haveasolidunderstandingoftheexpecteddevelopmentalnormssotheymaymake
informeddecisionsduringtheplanningprocess.Whileexpectationsregarding
developmentalnormsshouldguideplanning,therearemanyexceptionstotherule,
particularlyinthecognitivedomain.Therefore,conductingdiagnosticassessmentor
investigatingrecordsonexistingacademicknowledgeisalwaysnecessarypriorto
commencingalessonorunit.
Teachersneedtoknowabouttheacademicprofilesoftheirstudentsandwherepossible,
conductdiagnosticassessmentaboutatopicpriortoplanning.Piaget’sconstructivist
philosophyremindsteachersthatstudentsarriveatschoolwithapre-existingsetof
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schema,whichtheyusetomakesenseofnewphenomenonthroughtheprocessof
assimilationandaccommodation(Mcdevitt&Ormrod,2010,p.195-196).Piagetprovesthat
itispointlesstoassumethatstudentswillprocessinformationintheexactwayithasbeen
given(p.196).Therefore,teachersneedtoidentifyexistingschemasofacademic
knowledge,orlackthereof,thatmayhamperstudents’learningandplanaccordingly.This
investigationprocessmaybelikenedtothatofassessmentforlearningandisakeyfactor
thatteachersneedtoknowabouttheirstudentswhenplanning.Torecapitulate,theprior
academicknowledgeofstudentsisoneofthethreefactorsthatteachersneedtoknow
abouttheirstudentswhenplanning.Theothercomponentsbeingfirstly,thepersonal
interestsandlearningstylesthatareformedinthefamily,homeandcommunity
environments;andfinally,thephysicallimitationsandstrengths,andthecognitiveabilities
thatmaybeexpectedofaparticulardevelopmentalage.
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