Wolfram JorE, Birte Holst J0fgensen, Peter Loffler, Poul Erik Morthorst, Martine Uyterlinde, Emiel van Sambeek,

Timon Wehnert

Decentralised Power Generation in the Liberalised EU Energy Markets

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH

Wolfram JorE, Birte Holst Jorgensen, Peter Loffler, Paul Erik Morthorst, Martine Uyterlinde, Emiel van Sambeek, Timon Wehnert

Decentralised Power Generation in the Liberalised EU Energy Markets Results from the DECENT Research Project

With 42 Figures and 46 Tables

, Springer

WOLFRAM JORB, TIMONWEHNERT

IZT-Institute for Future Studies and Technology Assessment Schopenhauerstr. 26 14129 Berlin Germany http://www.izt.de

PETER LOFFLER

COGEN Europe Rue Gulledelle 98 1200 Bruxelles Belgium http://www .cogen.org

MARTINE UYTERLINDE

EMIEL VAN SAMBEEK

ECN-Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands EeN Policy Studies P.O. Box 1 1755 ZG Petten The Netherlands http://www .ecn.nl

POUL ERIK MORTHORST,

BIRTE HOLST J0RGENSEN

RIS0 National Laboratory Frederiksborgvey 399 4000 Roskilde Denmark http://www.risoe.dk

ISBN 978-3-642-07269-7 ISBN 978-3-662-05090-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-05090-3

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Foreword

In the coming 20 years, decentralised generation (DG) is expected to play an in­creasingly important role in the European electricity infrastructure and market. DG can be defined as small-scale generation connected to the distribution network or on the customer side of the meter. The application of DG is often highly loca­tion specific and depends on such diverse issues as the possibilities of technical implementation, resource availability, environmental aspects, social embedding of the project, regulation and market conditions. These factors vary considerably among technologies and among the ED Member States.

The DECENT study (Decentralised Generation Technologies - Potentials, Suc­cess Factors and Impacts in the Liberalised ED Energy Markets (Joerss et al. 2002» was designed and carried out to identify the main barriers and success fac­tors to the implementation of DG projects within the ED and to formulate a num­ber of related recommendations to ED and Member State policy makers to en­hance the feasibility of DG projects within the internal energy market.

The present book extensively builds on the results of the DECENT study and aims to make the core elements available to the interested public. These include updates on DG technologies and their implementation in the ED, barriers and suc­cess factors for DG, the analysis of policy implication as well as a foresight study on futures of DG technologies and implementation. The policy fields that relate to DG (e.g. energy market liberalisation, support of renewable energy sources (RES) and combined heat and power (CHP), security of supply) are subject to an inten­sive Europe-wide discussion and, accordingly, to a frequent change of more or less "official" policy documents. Thus, some aspects of the policy analysis per­formed in the DECENT study are inevitably in danger of being outdated once a significant political compromise on has been agreed on which significantly change the 2002 basis for analysis which was used in DECENT. However, both the rea­soning in the analysis of policy implications of the identified barriers and the more general recommendations for policy makers do remain valid regardless of the day­to-day fluctuations of drafts, working papers and proposals. In addition - and as the basis for the policy analysis - the book presents information which is less time-sensitive, i.e. overviews and outlooks on DG technologies and implementa­tion as well as DG case studies.

The DECENT study was carried out in the authors' research organisations, i.e. IZT (Institute for Futures Studies and Technology Assessment, Berlin, Germany -co-ordination), ECN (Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands, Petten, The Netherlands), RlS0 (RlS0 National Laboratory, Roskilde, Denmark) and COGEN Europe (European Association for the Promotion of Cogeneration, Brus-

VI Foreword

sels, Belgium), in co-operation with the industrial partners Unit Energy Europe AG and Jenbacher AG. DECENT was co-fmanced by the European Commission, DG Transport and Energy, within the 5th Research Framework Programme. The authors are committed to all these organisations which have facilitated the publication of this book.

Wolfram JorB Berlin, February 2003

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the following persons that facilitated the success­ful execution of the DECENT project and the preparation of this book through their valuable contributions as interview partners, case study contact persons, re­viewers and/or linguistic and formatting advisors:

Thomas Ackermann, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Sweden; Jose Luis Garda Angulo, IDAE, Spain; Andre Bandilla, Plambeck Neue Energien, Ger­many; Femke Bartels, Greenpeace Netherlands, Netherlands; S.1. Bestebroer, Agency for Research in Sustainable Energy, Netherlands; Carlos Itoiz Beunza, EHN, Spain; Hilmar Bieder, Tzschelln Hydropower, Germany; John Bird, St. Pancras & Humanist Housing Association, UK; Martin Bogaard, Nuon Interna­tional/ Renewable Energy, Netherlands; Mads Borup, RIS0, Denmark; Rien Bot, Nuon, Netherlands; Gilles Boving, Ministry of the Flemish Community, Belgium; Martin Bucher, Voltwerk, Germany; Marcello Capra, ENEA, Italy; Eugene Cross, ECN, Netherlands; Gabriela Prata Dias, CEEETA, Portugal; Pamela Finzer, Unit Energy Europe Germany; Anna Fraccalvieri, Ancinale Idroelettrica, Italy; Amparo Fresneda Garcia, IDAE, Spain; Reinhard Gottlicher, Unit Energy Europe, Ger­many; Walter Graf, ARGE Biogas, Austria; Bas Groonendaal, ECN, Netherlands; Reinhard Grunwald, Office for Technology Assessment at the German Parliament (TAB), Germany; J.H.P. Haagen, Medisch Centrum Alkmaar, Netherlands; Hans Hage, Unit Energy Europe, Germany; Jan Erik Hanssen, DG TREN, European Commission; Jeremy Harrison, EA Technology, UK; Mark Hinnells, ETSU, UK; Andreas Hollinger, Unit Energy Europe, Germany; Cynthia Horn, RIS0, Den­mark; Jari Ihonen, Lumituuli Oy, Finland; Boris Jovkov, Unit Energy Europe, Germany; Helma Kip, EnergieNed, Netherlands; Corinna Klefimann, IZT, Ger­many; Michael Knoll, IZT, Germany; Soren Krohn, Wind Turbine Manufacturers' Association, Denmark; Stefan Lang, SenerTec, Germany; Cerstin A. Lange, Ener­giekontor, Germany; Theo de Lange, ECN, Netherlands; Gilles Laroche, Club Cogeneration, France; Jens Larsen, KMEK, Denmark; Jesper Lorentzen, DG TREN, European Commission; Lars Malmrup, Turbec, Sweden; Mercedes Marin Nortes, COGEN Europe, Belgium; Lutz Mez, Freie Universitat Berlin, Germany; Simon Minett, COGEN Europe, Belgium; Catherine Mitchell, Warwick Business School, UK; Gerard Moerman, Public Hospital of Ronse, Belgium; Joao Montez, ECOGEN, Portugal; Armin Muller, SenerTec, Germany; Carl Henrik Neland, Vindinge Wind Turbine, Denmark; Lars Nielsen, DG TREN, European Commis­sion; Flemming Nissen, ELSAM, Denmark; Bruno Oberhuber, Energie Tirol, Austria; Walt Patterson, Royal Institute of International Affairs, UK; Inneke Peersman, Cogen Vlaanderen, Belgium; Pamela Pfinzer, Unit Energy Europe,

VIII Acknowledgements

Germany; Uli Prochaska, MENAG Energie, Germany; Josef Raab, Brennpunkt, Germany; Elmar Reitter, Association of Small Hydro-Plants (DGW), Germany; Siegfried Rettich, Energieagentur Lippe, Germany; Fieke Rijkers, ECN, Nether­lands; Ulrich Sawetzki, Jenbacher, Austria; Werner Schnurnberger, German Aero­space Centre DLRlTT, Germany; Wolfgang SchOnharting, Unit Energy Portugal, Portugal; Alwin Schoonwater, Nuon International! Renewable Energy, Nether­lands; Bernard Schuijt, Association for Wind turbine owners in North-Holland, Netherlands; Heinz Schwarzenbohler, Unit Energy Europe, Germany; Knut Stahl, T.B.E., Germany; P. Steijn, Windpark Zwaagdijk, Netherlands; Christoph Strobl, Thani Industriebetriebe, Austria; SOren Tafdrup, Danish Energy Agency, Den­mark; Bjorn Teislev, Babcock & Wilcox VOlund, Denmark; Klaus Thiessen, WISTAsolar, Germany; Daniela Velte, Prospektiker, Spain; Mark van Wees, ECN, Netherlands; Michael Wagner Jenbacher, Austria; Jens Windelev, Danish Energy Agency, Denmark; A.W.M. van Wunnik, Project Agency for Renewable Energy - PDE, Netherlands; Gregor Zattler, Germany.

Contents

Foreword •.•.••...•....•..•...••••..•....•...••...•............•...•.•....••.••..••......•..•........•.........•........ V

Acknowledgements •......•......•....•...•.............................•..•.........•..•..•............•...... VII

Contents .....•...•...•....•.........•..••...•....•................................•......•.....................•....... IX

List of Tables ••.••..••...•...•.....•.•.•..•.•.•.•.•.......•..•.........................•..•..•...•..........•.•.. XIII

List of Figures .................................................................................................... XV

Abbreviations .•...•...•...•..••.....••..••...........•...........•............•.........•...................... XVII

1 Introdnction .........••....•..••...•...••.•.••...•.........••.................•.....•..•...................•.•... 1

2 What is Decentralised Generation? ............................................................... 3

3 Outline of Research Methodology .................................................................. S 3.1 The 4-Dimensional Analytical Approach in DECENT ........................... 5 3.2 DG Project Stages .................................................................................... 7

3.2.1 Detailed Characterisation of the Implementation of a DG project 7

3.3 Conceptual Framework .......................................................................... 15

4 Status Quo and Developments of DG Technology ...................................... 19 4.1 Renewable Energy Sources ................................................................... 19

4.1.1 Photovoltaics 19 4.1.2 Wind Turbines 22 4.1.3 Hydro power 32 4.1.4 Biomass 35

4.2 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) ........................................................ .43 4.2.1 Steam Turbines 44 4.2.2 Reciprocating Engines 45 4.2.3 Gas Turbines 46 4.2.4 Combined Cycle Gas Turbines 47 4.2.5 New Small-Scale CHP Technologies 48 4.2.6 Fuel Cell Technology 49

X Contents

4.3 Future Decentralised Energy Systems 2020 .......................................... 58 4.3.1 Introduction 58 4.3.2 General Remarks 59 4.3.3 General Framework Topics Important for Decentralised

Energy Generation in the ED up to 2020 61 4.3.4 Ranking of Topics 62 4.3.5 Environment and Cost of Energy 66 4.3.6 Period of Occurrence 69 4.3.7 Other Comments of Survey Respondents 79

5 Liberalisation and Decentralised Generation in the ED Member States ............................................................................................................... 81 5.1 Status of Electricity Market Liberalisation in the ED Member States ... 81

5.1.1 The Directive on Liberalisation of the Electricity Market 81 5.1.2 Overview on Member States 84

5.2 Dse of Renewables ................................................................................ 85 5.2.1 Motivations for RES-support 86 5.2.2 Type of Support 87

5.3 DseofCHP ............................................................................................ 90 5.3.1 CHP Policies 91 5.3.2 CHP Support Schemes in the ED Member States 92

6 Scenarios: Europe's DG Power Generation in the Year 2020 .......•..........• 97 6.1 Scenario I - Green Power and Nuclear Ecology ................................. 100 6.2 Scenario II - Huge Fossils ................................................................... 102 6.3 Scenario III - Widespread Economic Niches ...................................... 103 6.4 Scenario IV - Hip Ecology .................................................................. 105

7 Case Study Analysis .............................•..•..•...•....•...•...................•..........•.... 107 7.1 Choice of Case Studies ........................................................................ 107 7.2 Short Presentation of Case Studies ...................................................... 109

8 Barriers and Success Factors for DG ........................................................ 115 8.1 Characterisation of Actors ................................................................... 115 8.2 Identified Barriers and Success Factors ............................................... 116

8.2.1 Policy! Institutional Dimension 116 8.2.2 Market! Financial Dimension 121 8.2.3 Technological Dimension 123 8.2.4 Social and Environmental Dimension 124

9 Policy Implications ......................•....•.............•••....•...•......•....•...........•......... 127 9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 127 9.2 Authorisations and Permitting ............................................................. 130

9.2.1 Construction Permits and Spatial Planning 130 9.2.2 Local Resistance 134

The 4-Dimensional Analytical Approach in DECENT XI

9.2.3 Permitting Problems for Biomass Plants based on wood or waste 136

9.3 Grid Connection .................................................................................. 137 9 A Market Access and Contracting ........................................................... 148

9.4.1 Balancing and Settlement Systems 148 9.4.2 Transaction Costs 152 9.4.3 Gas Liberalisation 153

9.5 Financing ............................................................................................. 153 9.5.1 Financing Issues, Barriers and Solutions 154 9.5.2 Support Mechanisms 157

9.6 Operation ............................................................................................. 159 9.6.1 Grid Use Fees 160 9.6.2 Ratio of Gas and Electricity Prices for CHP 165 9.6.3 Biomass Fuel Supply 167

9.7 Barriers and Success Factors not Specific to a Particular Stage .......... 168 9.7.1 Other Benefits of Decentralised Generation 168 9.7.2 Uncertainty on Policy Development 169 9.7.3 Market Power of Utilities 172 9.7.4 Specific Difficulties of Small Independent Power Producers

(IPPs) 173 9.7.5 Lack of the Skills Required to Plan and Install a CHP Plant 173

9.8 Policy Implications of the Outlook to 2020 ......................................... 175 9.8.1 Scenario I - Green Power and Nuclear Ecology 176 9.8.2 Scenario II - Huge Fossils 176 9.8.3 Scenario III - Widespread Economic Niches 177 9.804 Scenario IV - Hip Ecology 177

10 DG and Security of Supply ......................................................................... 179 10.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 179 10.2 The Dependence of the Energy Supply on Imported Fuels ................. 179 10.3 The Availability of the Required Energy Production Capacity ........... 182 10.4 Evaluation of Decentralised Plants in Relation to Security of Supply. 182

10.4.1 Criteria for Evaluating decentralised plants 182 10.4.2 Substitution ofImported Fuels 183 1004.3 Reliability 184 10.4.4 Flexibility 184 1004.5 Economic Attractiveness 185 10.4.6 Financial Risk 186 1004.7 Vulnerability 188

10.5 Conclusions and Recommendations .................................................... 188

11 DG and EU Energy Technology R&D Policy ............................................ 191 11.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 191 11.2 EU Research and Development Policy ................................................ 192 11.3 Assessment of Non-Nuclear Energy Proposals ................................... 193 11.4 Results From the DECENT Futures study ........................................... 195

XII Contents

11.5 The Future of European Energy Research ........................................... 197 11.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................... 198

12 Conclusions and recommendations ............................................................ 199 12.1 DG interconnection and system integration ........................................ 199 12.2 DG authorisations and permitting ........................................................ 201 12.3 Financing DG ...................................................................................... 202 12.4 The impact of DG on the security of supply ........................................ 203 12.5 ED energy technology R&D ............................................................... 204 12.6 Recommendations for further research ................................................ 204

13 References .................................................................................................... 207

14 Index ............................................................................................................. 213

Annex A: Survey questionnaire of the DECENT Futures Study .................. 215

Annex B: Characterisation of Case Studies .................................................... 219

Annex C: EU energy legislation applicable to DG .......................................... 247

List of Tables

Table I. Table 2. Table 3. Table 4. Table 5. Table 6. Table 7. Table 8. Table 9. Table 10. Table 11. Table 12. Table 13. Table 14. Table 15. Table 16. Table 17. Table 18. Table 19. Table 20. Table 22. Table 23: Table 24. Table 25. Table 26. Table 27. Table 28. Table 29. Table 30. Table 31. Table 32. Table 33. Table 34.

DG project implementation stages and actors ....................................... 9 Average PV costs in Germany ............................................................. 21 Cost structure for a 1MW wind turbine ............................................... 24 Investment costs related to the Tunp Knob wind farm ........................ 29 Unit costs for hydropower in the EU ................................................... 33 Investment and Unit Costs for Small Hydro Plants ............................. 33 Cost of biomass technologies ............................................................. .40 Emissions from biomass fired processes ............................................ .42 Steam turbine characteristics .............................................................. .44 Reciprocating engine characteristics .................................................. .46 Gas turbine characteristics .................................................................. .47 Combined cycle gas turbine characteristics ........................................ .47 Micro Turbine characteristics ........................................................ '" .. .48 Stirling engine characteristics ............................................................. .49 Key properties of a PEM fuel cell ....................................................... 50 Key proportion of a DMFC fuel cell ................................................... 52 Key properties of a SOFC fuel celL ................................................... 53 Key properties of a PAFC fuel cell ...................................................... 55 Key properties of a MCFC fuel cell ..................................................... 56 Key properties of an Alkaline fuel cell ................................................ 57 Characteristics of top ten topics ........................................................... 63 Barriers to the Top Ten Topics (in percentage) ................................... 64 Higher middle list ................................................................................ 64 Lower middle list. ................................................................................ 65 Bottom list ........................................................................................... 65 Top ten of beneficial impact on global environment.. ......................... 67 Bottom list of beneficial impact on global environment.. .................... 67 Top ten [nine] list of beneficial impact on cost of energy ................... 68 Bottom list of beneficial impact on cost of energy .............................. 69 "Never" responses ............................................................................... 70 Overview on Liberalisation Status of EU Member States (I) .............. 84 Overview on Liberalisation Status of EU Member States (II) ............. 85 Support systems for electricity from renewable energy sources in the EU .............................................................................................. 88

Table 35. Share of Renewable Energy Sources in Gross Inland Energy Consumption ....................................................................................... 89

Table 36. CHP Support Systems in the EU Member States ................................ 93

XIV List of Tables

Table 37. Overview on Case Studies ................................................................. 108 Table 38. Overview on barriers and success factors for DG ............................. 117 Table 39. Examples of schemes to involve local actors in the development

of a DG project .................................................................................. 136 Table 40. Overview of the evaluation results for decentralised

technologies ....................................................................................... 188 Table 41. Ratings for selected groupings of energy proposals .......................... 194 Table 42. Top ten of beneficial impact on global environment.. ....................... 196 Table 43. Top list of beneficial impact on cost of energy ................................. 196 Table 44. Financial overview of 5th and 6th Framework Programmes ............. 197 Table 45. Requested respondents' opinions on impacts .................................... 216 Table 46. Requested rating and qualification of Delphi statements .................. 217

List of Figures

Fig. 1: The four analytical dimensions in DECENT ......................................... 5 Fig. 2: Conceptual framework of DECENT analytical methods ..................... 15 Fig. 3: Links between working steps in DECENT .......................................... 16 Fig. 4: Wind turbine sizes and productivities .................................................. 24 Fig. 5: Wind turbine costs ............................................................................... 25 Fig. 6: Wind Energy Unit Costs ...................................................................... 26 Fig. 7: Off-shore wind energy unit costs I ...................................................... 30 Fig. 8: Off-shore wind energy unit costs II ..................................................... 31 Fig. 9: Cost structure for a new hydropower plant .......................................... 33 Fig. 10: Level of expertise of survey participants ............................................. 60 Fig. 11: Expertise of survey participants according to energy type .................. 60 Fig. 12: Combined index of global environmental impact and cost

production impact ................................................................................ 62 Fig. 13: Index of beneficial impact on global environment .............................. 66 Fig. 14: Index of beneficial impact on cost of energy production ..................... 68 Fig. 15: Time of occurrence for all decentralised energy topics ....................... 69 Fig. 16: Time of occurrence by energy types .................................................... 70 Fig. 17: Time of occurrence for wind power topics .......................................... 71 Fig. 18: Time of occurrence for PV topics ........................................................ 72 Fig. 19: Time of occurrence for biomass topics ................................................ 72 Fig. 20: Time of occurrence for small hydro topics .......................................... 73 Fig. 21: Time of occurrence for CHP topics ..................................................... 73 Fig. 22: Time of occurrence for fuel cell topics ................................................ 74 Fig. 23: Barriers for realising the topics ............................................................ 75 Fig. 24: Barriers for realising the topic by energy type ..................................... 75 Fig. 25: Barrier for wind power topics .............................................................. 76 Fig. 26: Barriers for PV topics .......................................................................... 77 Fig. 27: Barriers for biomass topics .................................................................. 77 Fig. 28: Barriers to small hydro power topics ................................................... 78 Fig. 29: Barriers to CHP topics ......................................................................... 78 Fig. 30: Barriers to Fuel Cell topics .................................................................. 79 Fig. 31: Renewables' share of electricity generation in EU Member

States, 2000 ......................................................................................... 90 Fig. 32: Approximate CHP share of total electricity production in EU

Member States in 1998 (Eurostat (2001)) ............................................ 92 Fig. 33: Four scenarios, characterised by 2 drivers ........................................... 98 Fig. 34: Distribution of Case Studies Generation Technologies ..................... 107

XVI List of Figures

Fig. 35: Distribution of Case Studies on EU Member States .......................... 108 Fig. 36: DG and the legal and regulatory environment ................................... 128 Fig. 37: Actor-phase diagram for DG in a liberalised market ......................... 129 Fig. 38: Classifying renewables support mechanisms .................................... 158 Fig. 39: Drivers for scenarios for DG futures in 2020 .................................... 175 Fig. 40: Business as usual scenario for final energy consumption in the

European Union until 2030 ............................................................... 180 Fig. 41: Business as usual scenario for energy supply originating from

within the European Union until 2030 .............................................. 180 Fig. 42: The EU dependence on imported energy resources ........................... 181

Abbreviations

AC Alternating Current MSW Municipal Solid Waste BiG-CC Biomass Gasification Com- NETA New Electricity Trading Ar-

bined Cycle rangements (UK) CCGT Combined Cycle Gas Tur- NOx Nitrogen Oxides

bine nTPA Negotiated Third Party Ac-CHP Combined Heat and Power cess CO Carbon Monoxide O&M Operation and Maintenance CO2 Carbon Dioxide PAFC Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell DC Direct Current PD Project Developer DG Decentralised Generation PEM Polymer electrolyte mem-DG The European Commis- brane (fuel cell) TREN sion's Directorate General PV Photovoltaics

Transport & Energy R&D Research and Development DKK Danish Crown REA Renewable Energies Act DMFC Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (Germany) DSO Distribution System Opera- RES Renewable Energy Sources

tor RES-E Electricity produced from ESCO Energy Service Contractor RES EU European Union rTPA Regulated Third Party Ac-FC Fuel Cell cess

GHG Greenhouse Gas SB Single Buyer

HTU Hydrothermal Upgrading S02 Sulphur Dioxide

lEA International Energy SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cell Agency T&D Transmission and Distribu-

IGCC Integrated Gasification tion Combined Cycle TM Technology Manufacturer

IPP Independent Power Pro- TPA Third Party Access ducer TSO Transmission System Op-

IPPC Integrated Pollution Preven- erator tion and Control UK United Kingdom

LFG Landfill Gas VOC Volatile Organic Com-MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell pounds MS (EU) Member States