A survey of word classes in English

1. Introduction2. Nouns3. Adjectives4. Adverbs5. Verbs

6. Conjunctions7. Prepositions8. Articles9. Numerals10. Pronouns11. Quantifiers12. Interjections

Introduction

definition A word class defines a group of words that share a

number (at least two) of properties.

Introduction

CriteriaThe properties members of one group are supposed to share usually are morphological and syntactical characteristics. Morphological features usually are derivational or inflexional affixes. Syntactic poperties of a word class are reflected by the typical ways in which their members function in sentences and phrases.

Introduction

Attempts to define word classes on the basis of semantics have been dismissed.

Can you imagine why?

Introduction

Reasons: conversion, multiple membership

Example: handshake (describes action ergo verb?)

roundness ( describes quality ergo adjective? fly, lack, tear (multiple membership)

Nouns

Derivational suffixes→ -age, -ance, -ation, -dom, -ee, -eer, -ess, -ette, -hood, -ism, -ist, -ment, -ness, -ship→ tolerance, childhoodInflexional suffixes→ number (plural) → -s → cats, → case (genitive) → -'s / s' → a girl's book, Dickens' books / Dickens's books

Nouns

Classes of nouns

Please decide which class the following nouns belong to: Mary, hope, table, night, Ireland, honey.

plural numerals many, few, several

much, little def. article indef. article

count (common nouns)

+ + + - + +

mass (common nouns)

- - - + + -

proper - - - - - -

Nouns

Mary → proper nounhope → mass nountable → count nounnight → count nounIreland → proper nounhoney → mass noun

Adjectives

derivational suffixes: -able, -ful, -ic, -ish, -ive, -less, -likecomparative ending: -er superlative ending: -est

attributive adjectives → the green doorpredicative adjectives → the door is green

Adverbs

Typical adverb suffixes are: -ly(!), -ward(s), -wise.

Morphplogical features:Only a small number of adverbs inflect for comparison, the forms are generally the same as the adjective forms (early, earlier, earliest).

Adverbs

Syntactic features: One can distinguish between two main syntactical function of the adverb which are a) adverbial, expressing meanings such as time, place, manner and degree eg: The plane arrived yesterday./ Peter quickly agreed to come. and b) constituent of a phrase, modifying adjective or adverb phrase head: eg. really good, linguistically correct (adjective phrase) / hardly ever, almost never (adverb phrase).

Adverbs

Please give two example phrases- one using the adverb „perfectly“ in adverbial function and one with

„perfectly“ as a phrase constituent.

Verbs

Morphological features: Typical derivational verb suffixes are: -en, -ify, -ise/-ize eg strengthen, simplify, customize.The most distinguished quality of the verb however is the ability to express the different tenses via inflexion. Eg: she walks (3rd person sgl, present), she (has)walked (past simple, participle), she is walking(gerund, progressive form). Apart from those regular forms, English has over 200 irregular verbs.

Syntactical features: The verb ususually functions as the predicator of a sentence.

Can you name an exception?

Verbs

Can you name an exception? (gerund. Example: Leaving NY is never easy.)

Verbs

The class of verbs can be divided into two subclasses, namelya) auxiliaries (closed class) Auxiliaries such as be*, do*, have*, may, must.. cannot stand on their own but must be accompanied by lexical verbs. (*primary auxiliaries)They are often used to form questions or tenses eg: Have you ever been to Paris? / You must never mention this again!

Verbs

and b) lexical verbs (open class)

Lexical verbs contain the principal information of the verb phrase. They can be accompanied by an auxiliary but can also stand alone.

Aarts&Aarts introduce two different approaches for categorizing lexical verbs, namely

a) according to complementation (intransitive verbs vs. complement verbs)

Simply put, Intransitive verbs do not take a complement, complement verbs (four sub-groups) do.

Verbs

Examples:

Intransitive verbs: The baby is sleeping. Dogs bark.

Complement verbs: 1. mono-transitive (DO only). The farmer kicked the horse.

ditransitive verbs (IO& DO/Benefactive Object&Object attribute) He gave her a book. / She called him a taxi.

Complex transitive (DO&BO) They find him a bore.

Transitive PC verbs That play reminds me of Shakespeare.

Non-transitive complements: John is a teacher.(copula)/ He resembles his father(predicator complement)

Verbs

b) one word verbs vs. multi word verbs I became a teacher. (one word)

The book consists of 12 chapters.(prep verb)He stepped down from his position. (phrasal verb)

Prepositions & Conjunctions

Prepositions

Simple prepositions: at, in, before, with

Complex prepositions: according to, in front of, in terms of, in addition to

Conjunctions

Simple conjunctions: and, if, since, but

Complex conjunctions: as if, so that, in case, as long as

Coordinators (and, but, or, for) → linkers between sentences, clauses and phrases

Subordinators → introduce clauses/ subclauses

Articles & Numerals

ArticlesThe definite article is the, the indefinite article is a or an (before vowels).NumeralsNumerals are divided into cardinal numbers (1 one, 2 two, 90 ninety etc.) and ordinal numbers ( 1st first, 2nd second, 6th sixth etc.).

Pronouns

There are several subclasses that can be considered pronouns:

a) personal pronouns ( eg.I, me, you, he, them...),

b) self-pronouns/ reflexives (eg myself, oneself, ourselves..),

c) demonstrative pronouns ( this, that, these, those)

d) possessive pronouns (eg my,mine, hers, our, their...),

e) relative pronouns (who, whose, whom,which and that),

f) interrogative pronouns: who, whose, what, which)

g) reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another

Quantifiers & Interjections

Quantifiers

Quantifiers that...

a. can only function as the head of a noun phrase (eg. someone, anyone, everything etc.) b. can function as the head of a noun phrase and as determiner (eg. some, many, enough, both, all, few etc.) c. can only function as determiner (every and no)

Interjections

Interjections are used only to express emotions (eg. surprise, disgust, pain etc.)

Examples: ah, hey, ouch, wow, oh

Source

Aarts, Flor & Jan Aarts. 1982. English syntactic structures. Functions and categories in sentence analysis. New York, etc.: Prentice Hall.