Work Disruption, Worker Health, and Productivity

Mariesa HerrmannColumbia University

Jonah RockoffColumbia Business School and NBER

Evidence from Teaching

October, 2009

2

Motivation and Background

● Work disruptions, including worker absence, have potentially important effects on labor productivity

● Work disruption and health are tightly linked– Two-thirds of lost work time due to illness or injury

● Health can also affect labor productivity directly– Dubbed “presenteeism” by soc. psych/med literature

● Considerable lit in economics on causes and consequences of absence; role of incentives– Many of these studies focus on teachers– Absences have significant negative impacts on students

(much larger estimates in developing world than U.S.)

3

Overview of Our Study

● Examine work disruption and teacher productivity– Measured by student achievement

● Use detailed information on teachers’ employment histories (including extended leaves) and absences– Exact timing and reason for each event

● Separate health from disruption using exam timing– If health is correlated over time, then a negative health

shock can occur prior to a health-related disruption– Health disruptions occurring post-exam can thus be

causally related to teacher productivity pre-exam● Panel data allow for identification within teachers

and student background controls

4

Data Sources

● New York City public schools, 1999-00 to 2007-08– Largest district in U.S., ~80,000 teachers, ~1m students

● Teacher data– Timing and reason for work disruptions (e.g., maternity leave, sick

leave, retirement, termination, etc.)– Date and reason for each day of absence– Background: education, experience, demographics…

● Student data– Demographics, program participation (free lunch, ELL, Spec Ed),

absences, and suspensions– Test scores in math and English, grades 3-8– Links to math and English teachers (same in 3-5, ~6)

● Administrative data– School calendars—coding of disruptive effects of leaves/departures– Exam dates—Math ~March-May, English ~January-April

5

NYC Public Schools Leave/Absence Policy

● Extended leave policies governed by FMLA (e.g., maternity leave) and details of teachers’ union contract (e.g., sabbaticals)

● Teachers earn 10 sick days per year– Use is capped at 10 per year, but medically

certified sick days do not count towards the cap– Unused days accumulate; can be used later or

cashed in at retirement/resignation• 1/400th of annual salary per unused day

6

Extended Disruption Measures

● Initially code 11 extended disruption types– Maternity, Child Care, Medical, Sick Family

Member, Personal, Sabbatical, Resignation or Retirement, Involuntary Termination, Certification Termination, Death, and Other

● Use 4 categories in regression analysis due to small frequencies for many types– Maternity, Medical, R-R-T, and Other

7

Daily Absence Measures

● Code daily absences into 3 categories– Self-treated sickness / personal– Medically certified sickness– Other (e.g., jury duty, funeral, religious holiday)

● Self-treated days may be due to illness, but many are likely due to other causes

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8

School CharacteristicsMaternity

LeaveMedicalLeave

Resignation/Termination

OtherLeave

Percent Receiving Special Education 0.3668 0.1348 0.0329 9.1580(0.8643) (0.4783) (0.0995) (15.6127)

Percent English Language Learner 1.4837 1.8254 1.4861 1.0443(0.5084) (0.9150) (0.4757) (0.4919)

Percent Receiving Free Lunch 0.6970 2.8821* 0.5009+ 0.9013(0.2797) (1.3543) (0.2070) (0.3854)

Percent Hispanic 1.1454 0.7750 4.4577* 0.7127(0.5022) (0.3981) (2.4030) (0.3684)

Percent Black 1.2846 1.2842 5.4574* 0.7073(0.5454) (0.6494) (2.7464) (0.3420)

Percent Asian 1.1814 0.6477 1.5324 0.6786(0.6613) (0.4811) (1.0400) (0.4131)

Extended Work Disruption

Who Experiences Teaching Disruptions?

Teacher CharacteristicsMaternity

LeaveMedicalLeave

Resignation/Termination

OtherLeave

Female 18.5659* 1.6475* 0.6701* 1.6885*(8.4504) (0.3615) (0.0774) (0.3310)

Ethnicity (Relative to White)Asian 1.1119 0.8467 0.8496 1.1273

(0.3475) (0.4549) (0.2740) (0.4435)Black 0.8849 1.2894 0.8997 0.7125

(0.1486) (0.2397) (0.1366) (0.1576)Hispanic 0.8308 0.5950 0.9145 0.8872

(0.1547) (0.1905) (0.1773) (0.2250)Age (Relative to Teachers Younger than 30)Between 30 and 44 Years Old 1.3256* 1.7457* 1.3036+ 1.7089*

(0.1811) (0.4921) (0.1889) (0.3765)Between 45 and 54 Years Old 0.0093* 1.5457 1.0329 0.5625+

(0.0094) (0.4758) (0.2177) (0.1687)Over 55 Years Old 0.0000* 2.4202* 4.5222* 0.6981

(0.0000) (0.8322) (0.8770) (0.2557)

Extended Work Disruption

School CharacteristicsMaternity

LeaveMedicalLeave

Resignation/Termination

OtherLeave

Percent Receiving Special Education 0.3668 0.1348 0.0329 9.1580 0.8199 1.1590(0.8643) (0.4783) (0.0995) (15.6127) (0.3674) (0.5329)

Percent English Language Learner 1.4837 1.8254 1.4861 1.0443 0.8891 0.9049(0.5084) (0.9150) (0.4757) (0.4919) (0.0746) (0.0695)

Percent Receiving Free Lunch 0.6970 2.8821* 0.5009+ 0.9013 0.8004* 1.3175*(0.2797) (1.3543) (0.2070) (0.3854) (0.0866) (0.1435)

Percent Hispanic 1.1454 0.7750 4.4577* 0.7127 1.2946+ 0.9923(0.5022) (0.3981) (2.4030) (0.3684) (0.1762) (0.1179)

Percent Black 1.2846 1.2842 5.4574* 0.7073 1.2028 0.9344(0.5454) (0.6494) (2.7464) (0.3420) (0.1512) (0.1033)

Percent Asian 1.1814 0.6477 1.5324 0.6786 1.4775* 0.8651(0.6613) (0.4811) (1.0400) (0.4131) (0.2819) (0.1281)

Extended Work Disruption Above Median

AbsencesAny Certified

SicknessTeacher CharacteristicsMaternity

LeaveMedicalLeave

Resignation/Termination

OtherLeave

Female 18.5659* 1.6475* 0.6701* 1.6885* 1.1154* 1.4885*(8.4504) (0.3615) (0.0774) (0.3310) (0.0328) (0.0456)

Ethnicity (Relative to White)Asian 1.1119 0.8467 0.8496 1.1273 0.8552* 0.7259*

(0.3475) (0.4549) (0.2740) (0.4435) (0.0637) (0.0544)Black 0.8849 1.2894 0.8997 0.7125 0.9383 0.8767*

(0.1486) (0.2397) (0.1366) (0.1576) (0.0385) (0.0350)Hispanic 0.8308 0.5950 0.9145 0.8872 1.1458* 1.1762*

(0.1547) (0.1905) (0.1773) (0.2250) (0.0532) (0.0533)Age (Relative to Teachers Younger than 30)Between 30 and 44 Years Old 1.3256* 1.7457* 1.3036+ 1.7089* 1.0943* 1.0890*

(0.1811) (0.4921) (0.1889) (0.3765) (0.0366) (0.0350)Between 45 and 54 Years Old 0.0093* 1.5457 1.0329 0.5625+ 0.9163* 1.0017

(0.0094) (0.4758) (0.2177) (0.1687) (0.0401) (0.0425)Over 55 Years Old 0.0000* 2.4202* 4.5222* 0.6981 1.0011 1.1554*

(0.0000) (0.8322) (0.8770) (0.2557) (0.0542) (0.0570)

Extended Work Disruption Above Median

AbsencesAny Certified

Sickness

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Estimation Methodology

● Baseline specification:

Yit = Lit +Ait +gXit + Wit + Sit +gt + it

– Yit : achievement score of student i in year t

– Lit : indicator for extended disruption for i’s teacher

– Ait : number of daily absences for i’s teacher

– Xit : student characteristics

– Wit : teacher characteristics (teacher-school-grade FE)

– Sit : school characteristics

gt : grade-year fixed effect

● Standard errors clustered at school level– Tend to be larger than at classroom or teacher level

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Potential Source of Bias

● In years when disruptions/absences occur, students are worse than usual for a teacher– Teachers take a leave, depart, or show up less

often when their students are more difficult– Principals expect disruption, assign students– Students expect disruption, behave worse

● Address using two strategies:– Timing of exam– Placebo test with teacher in other subject

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Separating Disruption and Health Effects

● Allow effects to vary by timing (pre/post exam) and cause (health/non-health)

● Alternate specification:

Yit = Dit+Pit+DitHit+PitHit +Zit+ it

– Dit : Indicates pre-exam disruption – Pit : Indicates post-exam disruption – Hit : Indicates disruption is health-related – Zit : Baseline controls (including teacher FE)

● If both disruption and health reduce productivity, should find 0,2,3 < 0, 1 = 0– If health-related post-exam disruptions are

unrelated to pre-exam health, then should find 3 = 0

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Baseline Specifications

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)Extended Work Disruption -0.0619* -0.0550* -0.0271* -0.0235*

(0.0041) (0.0057) (0.0040) (0.0056)Extended Work Disruption Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year

….Before Student Exams

….After Student Exams

Non-Disruptive Event (After Year Ends)

Total Daily Absences -0.0025* -0.0017* -0.0015* -0.0008*(0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0003)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam

Total Daily Absences After Exam

Teacher Fixed Effects

R-squared 0.664 0.702 0.616 0.645Number of Observations 2255568 2255568 2152534 2152534

Math English Language Arts(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Extended Work Disruption -0.0619* -0.0550* -0.0271* -0.0235*(0.0041) (0.0057) (0.0040) (0.0056)

Extended Work Disruption Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year -0.0532* -0.0387*(0.0173) (0.0187)

….Before Student Exams -0.0658* -0.0383*(0.0065) (0.0072)

….After Student Exams 0.0022 0.0014(0.0136) (0.0078)

Non-Disruptive Event (After Year Ends) 0.0025 -0.0030(0.0035) (0.0040)

Total Daily Absences -0.0025* -0.0017* -0.0015* -0.0008*(0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0003)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam -0.0022* -0.0008*(0.0002) (0.0003)

Total Daily Absences After Exam -0.0010* -0.0002(0.0003) (0.0003)

Teacher Fixed Effects

R-squared 0.664 0.702 0.702 0.616 0.645 0.645Number of Observations 2255568 2255568 2255568 2152534 2152534 2152534

Math English Language Arts(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

Extended Work Disruption -0.0619* -0.0271*(0.0041) (0.0040)

Extended Work Disruption Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year

….Before Student Exams

….After Student Exams

Non-Disruptive Event (After Year Ends)

Total Daily Absences -0.0025* -0.0015*(0.0002) (0.0002)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam

Total Daily Absences After Exam

Teacher Fixed EffectsR-squared 0.664 0.616Number of Observations 2255568 2152534

Math English Language Arts

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Disruption/Health: Extended Disruptions

Extended Disruption Before Exam Due To… Maternity Leave -0.0635* -0.0346*

(0.0123) (0.0127)

Medical Leave -0.0622* -0.0447*(0.0082) (0.0093)

Resignation, Retirement, or Termination -0.0937* -0.0172(0.0197) (0.0291)

Other Type of Leave -0.0666* -0.0284+(0.0141) (0.0154)

R-squared 0.702 0.645Number of Observations 2,255,568 2,152,534

Math EnglishExtended Disruption After Exam Due To…

Maternity Leave -0.0113 -0.0075(0.0252) (0.0178)

Medical Leave 0.0012 0.0108(0.0206) (0.0109)

Resignation, Retirement, or Termination -0.0086 -0.0067(0.0363) (0.0271)

Other Type of Leave 0.0269 -0.0123(0.0317) (0.0180)

R-squared 0.702 0.645Number of Observations 2,255,568 2,152,534

Math EnglishExtended Disruption Before Exam Due To… Maternity Leave

Medical Leave

Resignation, Retirement, or Termination

Other Type of Leave

R-squaredNumber of Observations

Math English

14

Math English

Total Daily Absences After Exam Due to…

...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days -0.0008 0.0002(0.0007) (0.0006)

….Certified Sickness -0.0012* -0.0001(0.0004) (0.0003)

….Other Types of Absence -0.0008 -0.0005(0.0006) (0.0005)

R-squared 0.702 0.645Number of Observations 2,255,568 2,152,534

Math English

Total Daily Absences Before Exam Due to… ...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days

….Certified Sickness

….Other Types of Absence

R-squaredNumber of Observations

Math English

Total Daily Absences Before Exam Due to… ...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days -0.0039* -0.0016*

(0.0005) (0.0006)

….Certified Sickness -0.0018* -0.0006+(0.0003) (0.0003)

….Other Types of Absence -0.0020* -0.0008+(0.0004) (0.0005)

R-squared 0.702 0.645Number of Observations 2,255,568 2,152,534

Disruption/Health: Daily Absences

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● Placebo test using “other-subject” teacher– Limited to students in grades 6-8

● More flexible post-exam timing– Exams moved up in later years

● Student absences as a (spurious?) pathway● Suspensions to address reactive behavior● Heterogeneity across student “ability”● Heterogeneity by teacher experience● Duration / day of week of daily absences

Checks and Extensions

Extended Work Disruption, Same Subject Teacher, Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year -0.0550* -0.0414 -0.0185 -0.0203(0.0210) (0.0329) (0.0128) (0.0302)

….Before Student Exams -0.0587* -0.0476* -0.0263* -0.0238+(0.0085) (0.0119) (0.0087) (0.0137)

Extended Work Disruption, Other Subject Teacher, Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year

….Before Student Exams

Same Subject Teacher-School-Grade Fixed Effects

R-squared 0.688 0.716 0.629 0.648Number of Observations 930385 930385 930385 930385

Math EnglishExtended Work Disruption, Same Subject Teacher, Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year

….Before Student Exams

Extended Work Disruption, Other Subject Teacher, Starting…

…Before the Start of School Year -0.0092 -0.0161 -0.0301 -0.0002(0.0160) (0.0187) (0.0188) (0.0171)

….Before Student Exams -0.0022 0.0032 -0.0084 -0.0123(0.0083) (0.0073) (0.0080) (0.0081)

Same Subject Teacher Fixed Effects

R-squared 0.688 0.710 0.629 0.643Number of Observations 930385 930385 930385 930385

Math English(1) (2) (3) (4)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam Due to… ...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days -0.0027* 0.0013

(0.0010) (0.0012)

….Certified Sickness -0.0009* -0.0018* -0.0000 -0.0005+(0.0004) (0.0003) (0.0004) (0.0003)

….Other Types of Absence -0.0016* -0.0020* -0.0014+ -0.0008+(0.0007) (0.0004) (0.0008) (0.0005)

Total Spells of Absence Before Exam Due to…

...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days -0.0020+ -0.0043*(0.0012) (0.0015)

….Certified Sickness -0.0051* -0.0031*(0.0012) (0.0015)

….Other Types of Absence -0.0012 0.0012(0.0012) (0.0014)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam ...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days M/F -0.0037* -0.0004

(0.0007) (0.0009) ...Self Treated Sickness / Personal Days Tu-Th -0.0040* -0.0025*

(0.0006) (0.0007)

R-squared 0.702 0.702 0.645 0.645Number of Observations 2255568 2255568 2152534 2152534

EnglishMath

(1) (2)

Extended Disruption Before Student Exams -0.0720* -0.0427*(0.0071) (0.0079)

Extended Disruption Before Student Exams 0.0409* 0.0269 * Teacher w/ Fewer Than 3 Years Experience (0.0144) (0.0166)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam -0.0025* -0.0010*(0.0003) (0.0003)

Total Daily Absences Prior to Exam 0.0013* 0.0008 * Teacher w/ Fewer Than 3 Years Experience (0.0005) (0.0006)

R-squared 0.702 0.645Number of Observations 2255021 2152376

Math English

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Findings and Conclusions

● Work disruptions in teaching have large negative effects on educational production– Akin to move from 50th30th pctile of teacher quality

● Limited evidence on the effect of worker health on productivity beyond its impact via disruption– Negative effect of health related absences but not extended leaves– Supports giving some weight to “presenteeism” in design of optimal

compensation for absences due to illness

● Estimates imply a role for educational policy in dampening impact of work disruption in teaching– “Substitute-ability”; work standardization (e.g., uniform curriculum);

resource allocation in cases of predictable disruption (e.g., maternity)

● Finally, raises concern about identifying impact of absences in data without information on timing and cause, even in specifications with teacher FE

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Decline in Importance of Work Stoppage0

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This figure plots annual days of idleness from work stoppage as a percent of total estimated working time. Source: BLS.

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Lost Work Time Due to Absence

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This figure plots annual average lost worktime rates for full-time wage and salary workers. Source: BLS.

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Descriptive Stats: Extended Disruptions

Type of EventAll

EventsDisruptive

EventsMaternity Leave 659 589 54.2% 42.3% 3.6%Child Care Leave 692 280 54.6% 36.1% 9.3%Medical Leave 1314 1206 71.0% 27.6% 1.4%Personal Leave 530 95 8.4% 18.9% 72.6%Sick Family Member Leave 119 73 65.8% 28.8% 5.5%Other Leave 445 145 59.3% 31.7% 9.0%Sabbatical 373 44 0.0% 97.7% 2.3%Resignation or Retirement 5257 514 5.1% 77.0% 17.9%Involuntary Termination 1068 95 7.4% 11.6% 81.1%Termination, Certification 209 46 2.2% 78.3% 19.6%Death 27 19 0.0% 100.0% 0.0%All Events 10693 3106 48.4% 41.0% 10.6%

Fraction of Disruptive Events that…

Both Startand Endin Year

Start But Not Endin Year

Start BeforeBut Endin YearType of Event Mean

25thPctile Median

75thPctile

Maternity Leave 63 40 54 77Child Care Leave 64 39 54 81Medical Leave 51 34 42 58Personal Leave 42 12 18 72Sick Family Member Leave 40 19 35 54Other Leave 59 39 49 71Sabbatical 93 92 92 93Resignation or Retirement 71 35 75 108Involuntary Termination 47 17 41 78Termination, Certification 39 5 39 58Death 50 26 42 63All Events 58 35 49 77

School Days Missed (Zeros Excluded)

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Descriptive Stats: Daily Teacher Absence

No ExtendedDisruption

Any ExtendedDisruption

Number of Observations 85,454 3,217

Total Absences 8.837 8.836By Type of Absence: Self-Treated Sick / Personal 4.791 3.884 Medically Certified Sick 1.958 3.335 Conference/School Activities 1.114 0.471 Funeral / Death in Family 0.329 0.258 Jury Duty/Military Service 0.269 0.162 Injury 0.115 0.325 Graduation 0.101 0.039 Religious Holiday 0.100 0.113 Grace Period 0.014 0.171 Unauthorized 0.011 0.053 Late More than Half Day 0.003 0.002