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A resource book for teachers ofprimary and secondary science

Implementing and Assessing OpenInvestigation Work in Science

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:

A resource book for teachers ofprimary and secondary science

Mark W. Hackling

Edith Cowan University

IImplementing and Assessing OpenInvestigation Work in Science

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY:

Foreword

The trial of the Science Student Outcome Statements in Western Australian schoolsduring 1995 and 1996 brought about a re-focusing of school science towards ‘workingscientifically’. The Outcome Statements describe the development of learning in theprocess of scientific investigation, as distinct from specific science skills. For students toimprove their understanding of this process and their capacity to use it to test their ownideas and solve problems, they need to be provided with opportunities to plan andconduct their own investigations, process their data and analyse the investigation.

Many teachers have now taken on the challenge of implementing open investigationwork with their students. Dr Mark Hackling, the author of this book, has worked withmany teachers in researching effective ways of implementing this approach in theclassroom and has delivered numerous professional development workshops forteachers. He has also led research supporting revision of the Working Scientificallyoutcomes in the Working Edition of the Student Outcome Statements to more accuratelydescribe the progression of student learning.

This book provides support for teachers in understanding the process of scientificinvestigation, implementing open investigations with their students, monitoring students’progress, and planning for each student’s improvement.

I am confident that these materials will make a very useful contribution in supportingteachers implementing the Outcomes and Standards Framework.

GREG ROBSON

DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUM

December 1998

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY

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CONTENTS

Page

The Working Scientifically approach to open investigation work in science 2

➥ Why do we include practical work in science? 2

➥ What are open investigations? What does it mean to ‘investigate scientifically’? 4

➥ How does investigation work open the door to conceptual learning? 5

➥ How does investigation fit the 5Es model of instruction? 5

➥ The cognitive apprenticeship approach to teaching and learning of investigation processes 9

The variables structure of an investigation 10

Types and examples of investigations 11

Implementing open investigations in science 14

➥ Barriers to change 14

➥ Scaffolding students’ investigations, using planning and report sheets 14

➥ Other scaffolding tools 18

➥ Cooperative learning strategies for effective investigation work 19

Assessing open investigations using Student Outcome Statements 20

➥ Purposes of assessment 20

➥ Sources of assessment information 20

➥ Using the Outcome Statements to make judgements about students’ achievement 22

➥ Using formative assessment to inform teaching and learning 25

➥ Using portfolios for assessment of open investigation work 25

References 26

Appendix 27

1: Early and middle childhood planning and report sheet 28

2: Middle childhood and early adolescence planning and report sheet 30

3: Early and late adolescence planning and report sheet 33

4: The five steps of investigation 40

5: Roles for cooperative group work 41

6: Student Outcome Statements for Investigating Scientifically 42

7: Science investigations self-evaluation checklist 45

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Why do weinclude practicalwork in science?When teachers are asked why theyinclude practical work in science,the answer given often variesbetween primary and secondaryteachers. Reasons given usuallyinclude providing opportunities for:

➥language development;

➥learning to work cooperatively;

➥concrete experiences of naturalphenomena;

➥stimulating curiosity andcreativity;

➥motivation and enjoyment ofscience;

➥developing investigation andproblem-solving skills;

➥developing techniques andmanipulative skills associated withusing scientific equipment;

➥experiencing and developing anunderstanding of the nature ofscience; and

➥conceptual development.

Primary teachers tend to place moreemphasis on reasons in the first halfof the list and secondary teachers toplace more emphasis on reasons inthe second half of the list.

There are many different forms ofpractical work: for example,demonstrations, practical exercises,fieldwork and open investigations.Each provides opportunities for

The Working Scientifically

approach to open

investigation work in science

different types of learningoutcomes. It is therefore importantto match the type of practicalwork to the intended learningoutcome and to provide a widerange of practical experiences sothat students have opportunities todevelop a greater range oflearning outcomes.

The degree of openness ofpractical activities can beassessed in terms of whether it isthe teacher or student whodecides the problem to beinvestigated, the equipment to beused, the procedure for setting upequipment and makingobservations and measurements,and the conclusions to be drawn.These criteria can be used toclassify practical activities intocategories as shown in Table 1.

Level Problem Equipment Procedure Answer Common name

0 Given Given Given Given Verification

1 Given Given Given Open Guided inquiry

2a Given Given Open Open Open guided inquiry

2b Given Open Open Open Open guided inquiry

3 Open Open Open Open Open inquiry

Table 1. Levels of openness of inquiry in laboratory activities (after Hegarty-Hazel, 1986)

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At the lowest level of inquiry (Level0), the problem to be investigated,the equipment to be used, theprocedure and the answer to theproblem are all given to thestudents by the teacher or by aworksheet. At the highest level ofinquiry (Level 3), the students arerequired to determine all of thesefor themselves.

Many would now argue that thestudent should be involved inselecting the problem or variablesto be investigated, and that theproblem should be embedded in acontext familiar to the student forthe learning experience to bemeaningful and represent authenticscience (Woolnough, 1994).Student choice enhancesownership, motivation andpersistence in the face ofdifficulties.

The majority of practical activitiesin the Primary Investigationscurriculum are fairly closedbecause the curriculum was writtenfor teachers who lacked confidencein teaching science and thereforewas highly structured.

Similarly, lower secondary scienceis dominated by recipe-style,worksheet-based laboratoryexercises (Staer, Goodrum &Hackling, 1998). This restricteddiet of closed practical exercisesprovides students with fewopportunities for practising skills ofanalysing a problem, formulating aresearchable question orhypothesis, and planning andconducting their own experiments.Many science educators argue thatstudents need the opportunity to doopen investigation work if they areto develop the investigation andproblem-solving skills that are at theheart of scientific literacy. These are

included in the OverarchingStatement, the Science LearningArea Statement (CurriculumCouncil, 1998), and the KeyCompetencies (Mayer, 1993).

The core skills of scientificreasoning entail the coordination ofexisting theories with new evidencebearing on them (Kuhn, Schauble &Garcia-Mila, 1992). Scientifictheories stand in relation to actualor potential bodies of evidenceagainst which they can beevaluated (Kuhn, 1989). Gott andDuggan (1996) have argued thatunderstanding the nature ofscientific evidence, which is basedon competencies associated withexperimental design, measurementand data handling, is central toscientific literacy.

In the US National ScienceEducation Standards, ascientifically-literate person isdefined as one who ‘should beable to evaluate the quality ofscientific information on the basisof its source and the methods usedto generate it’ (National Academyof Sciences & National ResearchCouncil, 1996, p. 22).

In its definition and rationale forscience education, the WesternAustralian Science Learning AreaStatement also focuses onscientific evidence:

“Science has many methodsof investigation, but all arebased on the notion thatevidence forms the basis fordefensible conclusions . . .Science education empowersstudents to be questioning,reflective and critical thinkers.It does this by giving themparticular ways of looking atthe world and by emphasisingthe importance of evidence informing conclusions.”Curriculum Council (1998)

pp. 218-219

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What are openinvestigations?

What does itmean toinvestigate scientifically?

Open investigations are activities inwhich students take the initiative infinding answers to problems (Jones,Simon, Fairbrother, Watson &Black, 1992). The problems requiresome kind of investigation in orderto generate information that willgive answers. Garnett, Garnett andHackling (1995) describe a scienceinvestigation as ‘a scientificproblem which requires the studentto plan a course of action, carryout the activity and collect thenecessary data, organise and

interpret the data, and reach aconclusion which is communicatedin some form’ (p. 27). The planningcomponent and the problem-solvingnature of the task distinguishinvestigations from other types ofpractical work.

The WA Science Learning AreaStatement’s major learning outcomefor Working Scientifically –Investigating refers to PlanningInvestigations, ConductingInvestigations, Processing Data andEvaluating Findings.

In practice, these processes maynot take place in the strict order of,say, Planning – Conducting –Processing – Evaluating, becausehalfway through Conducting it maybe realised that more planning isneeded and therefore a morerecursive model (see Figure 1) maymore accurately represent theinvestigation process.

“Students investigate toanswer questions about thenatural and technologicalworld, using reflection andanalysis to prepare a plan; tocollect, process and interpretdata; to communicateconclusions; and to evaluatetheir plan, procedures andfindings.”Curriculum Council (1998)

pp. 222

Figure 1. A model of science investigation processes (Hackling & Fairbrother, 1996)

Planning

Identify and analyseproblem

Identify variables

Formulate a research questionor a hypothesis and prediction

Operationalise variables, planthe design and procedure

Conducting

Conduct preliminary trials

Carry out the experiment,observe, measure and recorddata

Evaluating

Evaluate the design of theexperiment and the techniquesor methods used

Evaluate findings in relation tothe problem, question orhypothesis

Processing

Use science knowledge todevelop explanations forpatterns, trends or relationshipsin data

Analyse data; identify patternsor trends in data andrelationships between variables

Organise data, calculate,construct graphs

Reformulateproblem orhypothesis

Revise methodsand techniques

Revisemethods

andtechniques

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How doesinvestigationwork openthe door toconceptuallearning?

How doesinvestigationwork fit the5Es model ofinstruction?

Practical investigation workprovides opportunities for studentsto practise and developinvestigation skills and also gainconcrete experiences of naturalphenomena which provide afoundation for conceptual learning.

The investigation work of WorkingScientifically provides an approachwhich can contribute to learningthe understandings outlined in theconceptual strands Earth andBeyond, Energy and Change, Lifeand Living, and Natural andProcessed Materials.

Although Working Scientifically –Investigating is a separate outcomein the Learning Area Statement, it isintended that investigations beintegrated into the conceptualoutcomes in the implementedcurriculum. The conceptual strandsprovide the context for investigationwork.

All forms of practical work shouldbe integrated carefully into aninstructional sequence so thatmeaningful links can be establishedbetween the practical andtheoretical aspects of science. Thislinkage can be addressed at twolevels: at the level of the individualactivity using Gowin’s V (Novak &Gowin, 1984), or at the level of asequence of lessons, using the 5Esinstructional model.

Gowin’s V

For an individual practical activity,relationships between the practicaland conceptual can be developedby using Gowin’s V (Figure 2),which is a useful device forstructuring the discussions thatprecede and follow the practicalactivity.

Figure 2. The structure of a V-map (Hackling, 1994)

Conceptual

3 Students’ existingconceptions in theform of concepts,propositions andtheories

1 Focus question

Methodological

6 Knowledgeclaims

5 Transformed data

4 Records of raw data

2 The objects/events/phenomenon to beinvestigated

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Steps 1-3 are completed in the pre-practical discussion, Step 4 iscompleted as part of the practicalwork, and Steps 5 and 6 are thefocus of the post-practicaldiscussion.

In the pre-practical discussion, alarge ‘V’ is drawn on the board.The teacher establishes the contextand develops with the students afocus question for the investigation(Step 1).

In Step 2, the objects and eventswhich will be the focus of theinvestigation are examined andwritten at the apex of the V.

In Step 3, the teacher elicitsstudents’ understandings relating to

the phenomenon, so they areavailable to anticipate, monitor andcomprehend the data to becollected; these are written on theconceptual side of the ‘V’. Some ofthe students’ beliefs may beunscientific and can be challengedin the post-practical discussion.

Following the practical activity, rawdata collected by students arecollated by the teacher on thelower right-hand side of the ‘V’(Step 4).

At this stage, the teacher canfacilitate the discussion of whetherthere is any need to transform thedata into a table or graph to helpidentify any patterns in the data

Figure 3. A completed V-map (Hackling, 1994)

ConceptualFocus questionWhat effect does exercisehave on heart rate?

Methodological

PhenomenonChanges in pulserate in response tolevels of exercise

TheoriesBody homeostatisGas exchange systemCirculatory system

PropositionsExercise requires energyEnergy is supplied bycellular respiration

ConceptsPulse, heart rate, artery,exercise, muscle, energy,respiration, oxygen,glucose

Knowledge claimsHeart rate increases withintensity of exercise.Increased heart rate suppliesthe extra oxygen and glucoseneeded to provide the energyfor exercise.

Transformed data

heartrate

L M H

Data recordsExercise Average heart rate

Low 73 bpmModerate 85 bpm

High 127 bpm

(Step 5). After this, the data can beinterpreted in terms of theconceptual knowledge elicited inthe pre-practical discussion. Thedata may be inconsistent withstudents’ conceptions and this canlead to a discussion of theadequacy of the initial conceptionsand the extent to which the dataare subject to error or uncertainty.

An example of a completed V-mapis illustrated in Figure 3. Such amap can be a useful way forstudents to record a summary oftheir work in their notes.

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The 5Es instructional modelRecent exemplary primary andlower secondary science curricula,such as Primary Investigations,BSCS Middle School Science andScience Plus, are structured aroundthe ‘5Es’ instructional model, whichis derived from constructivistlearning theory. Simply stated,constructivists argue that studentsuse their own beliefs andunderstandings to interpretexperiences and construct meaningfor those experiences and their

understandings of the world aroundthem. The 5Es instructional model isbased on the constructivist premisethat students learn best whenallowed to work out explanationsfor themselves over time through avariety of learning experiencesstructured by the teacher. To helpstudents make the connectionsbetween what they already knowand new experiences andinformation, modules of work areorganised around the stages of the5Es model (Figure 4).

Phase of instructional model Purpose Role of reading, writing, practical work and discussion

Engage Create interest and stimulate curiosity Motivating/discrepant demonstrations

Raise questions to create interest and raise questions

Reveal student ideas and beliefs Open questions and individual

Compare students’ ideas writing to reveal students’ beliefs

Explore Experience the phenomenon or concept Open investigation work to

Explore questions and test students’ ideas experience the phenomenon,

Investigate and solve problemsobserve, test ideas and try to answer questions.

Explain Compare ideas Small-group discussion to compare

Introduce definitions and concept names ideas and construct explanations

Construct explanations and Student text reading to access conceptjustify them in terms of observations names and definitionsand data

Writing to clarify and document explanations

Elaborate Use and apply concepts and Further practical activities or problems explanations in new contexts to provide opportunities to apply,

Reconstruct and extend explanations extend, compare and clarify ideas

to new contexts

Evaluate The teacher looks for evidence of Write answers to open-ended changes in students’ ideas, beliefs questions to reveal conceptionsand skills Reflect on any changes to

Students review and evaluate their explanations

own learning

Figure 4. Phases of the 5Es instructional model

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The 5Es model provides aframework for structuring asequence of lessons consistent witha constructivist approach.

The Engage lesson sets thecontext, raises questions and elicitsstudents’ existing beliefs.

The Explore lesson involvesinvestigation work in which studentsgain first-hand (and, wherepossible, concrete) experience ofthe phenomenon of interest.

The Explain phase draws onstudents’ beliefs from the Engagelesson, concepts introduced by theteacher or from text reading. Theseare used to construct explanationsfor the experiences of the Explorephase.

Further practical work providesmore experiences of thephenomenon, this time in adifferent context, so that theElaborate lesson can involvestudents applying conceptionsdeveloped in the Explain lesson tonew contexts, thus extending andintegrating their learning.

The Evaluate lesson provides anopportunity for students and theteacher to assess developedconceptions and compare them totheir beliefs at the Engage phase.

In the Primary Investigationscurriculum, some of the closedactivities at the Explore phase canbe replaced with openinvestigations to give students theopportunity to plan and conducttheir own investigations andpractise working scientifically.

Similarly, in the secondarycurriculum, open investigationsneed to replace some of the closed,recipe-style activities at appropriateplaces in the instructionalsequence, which can be planned tofollow the 5Es model.

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The cognitiveapprenticeshipapproach toteaching andlearning ofinvestigationprocesses

It is helpful to conceptualise theteacher and the student’s roles inlearning the complex craft skills ofscience as being analogous to thatof the tradesperson and apprentice.

The cognitive apprenticeshipmodel of instruction (Collins, Brown& Newman, 1989; Hennessy,1993) has, as its main elements,modelling, scaffolding, coaching,articulation and fading:

➥ The teacher models strategiesfor the students, making explicittheir problem-solving processes.

➥ The teacher providesscaffolding to structure thework of the students.

➥ The teacher works alongsidestudents, coaching them onspecific skills and strategies.

➥ Students are encouraged todiscuss and reflect on theirdecision making and strategies.Articulation of tacitknowledge helps make itexplicit.

➥ As students gain competence,some of the scaffolding isfaded away.

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Science experiments are designedto collect evidence to solveproblems, answer questions or totest hypotheses. To have confidencein the collected data, we need tobe sure the tests were fair and thatsources of error were minimised. Todo this we need to controlvariables and use repeat trials orreplication. For example, if wewere investigating the effect of theheight from which a ball isdropped (the independentvariable) on the height to which itbounces (the dependentvariable), we would need toisolate and control variables tomake sure it was a fair test.Variables such as the type of balland the surface onto which it wasdropped would need to be keptconstant, or controlled (acontrolled variable), so that wecould be sure that it was thechange in the drop height that wascausing the effect on bounceheight.

To get a fix on measurement error,we would repeat trials threetimes (e.g. drop the ball three timesfrom 2m, then drop the ball threetimes from 1.5m, etc.) to see theextent of variation in results.

The variables structure

of an investigation

If the variation between the repeattrials was considered excessive, themeasurement procedure would bemodified to reduce the source oferror. It is not always possible torepeat trials because trials may bedestructive: for example, in testingthe effect of temperature on seedgermination – once a seed hasbeen germinated it cannot begerminated again.

In these experiments, replicationis used. This involves setting up twoor three dishes of seeds at eachtemperature rather than just one.The extent of variation in resultsbetween replicates indicatesmeasurement and sampling error:for example, to what extent wereall the seeds viable?

Observations and measurements ofvariables can be either discrete orcontinuous. Discrete data are incategories, such as gender, type ofanimal, brand of paper towel orcolour. Continuous data areassociated with measurementinvolving a standard scale withequal intervals, such as height ofplants in centimetres, the amount offertiliser in grams or the length oftime in seconds.

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Not all investigations have thesame structure and approach todata collection. Each type ofinvestigation will provideopportunities to practise differentapproaches to the collection andanalysis of data. A balancedscience education program shouldnot only include different types ofpractical work (such asdemonstrations, closed exercisesand open investigations), but alsodifferent types of investigations.Gott and Murphy (1987) classifiedinvestigations into three categories,in terms of the purpose of theproblem posed to the students:

Types and examples

of investigations

➥ Decide which … problems

Example: Decide which brandof paper towel is best forabsorbing spilt water.

➥ Find a way to … problems

Example: Find a way ofmeasuring the weight of asuitcase when existingequipment is not adequate.

➥ Find the effect of ...problems

Example: How does the depthof water in a container affectthe rate at which water runs outof a hole in the bottom?

Another way of classifyinginvestigation tasks is in terms of themethods of data collection and theways in which error is reduced inthe design of the experiment.

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Type 1. Investigating a relationship between two variables where repeat trials can be used

Examples FeaturesHow does the height from which a ball Repeat trials are conducted and is released affect the height to which it averaged because tests are non-bounces? destructive and can be repeatedHow does the amount of stretch in a to get a fix on measurement error.rubber band affect the distance it travels when released?

Type 2. Investigating a relationship between two variables where replication can be used

Examples FeaturesWhat effect does temperature have Replication is used because testson dissolving of jelly cubes/soluble are destructive and cannot beaspirin tablets? repeated, and the material or What effect does temperature have population may be non-uniform.on germination? Hence, replication gives a fix on

sampling error.

Type 3. Testing types of materials

Examples FeaturesWhich kind of paper towel holds Types or brands of materials aremost water? tested for absorbency, strength,Which type of adhesive tape is stickiness, durability, etc. The the stickiest? independent variable is always

discrete. Tests need to be repeated/replicated to get a fix on measurement and sampling error.

Type 4. Investigating the effect of several independent variables on one dependent variable – often associated with a design problem

Examples FeaturesHow do the number of coils, length and There is a need to test a numberthickness of wire, type of metal from of independent variables separately which the wire is made and current or in combinations on one affect the eficiency of a heating dependent variable, and then element? develop a design brief.How do you make a powerful heatingelement?What effect does beam material, beam thickness and span width have on the strength of a bridge? How do you build a strong bridge?

Types and examples

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Type 5. Survey research, where populations are sampled to investigate the relationships between variables

Examples FeaturesHow do height and weight vary The population being tested is with age in boys and girls? non-uniform and samples are

selected based on the parameters being investigated. Random sampling is used to control for interfering variables.

Type 6. Comparative or descriptive studies typical of field biology and the earth sciences

Examples FeaturesHow do the animal communities differ A range of data types is collectedin native bush and parkland? to develop a description of a What factors are likely to have caused phenomenon or location. Random these differences? sampling may be used to controlDescribe the moon as it changes interfering variables. Comparisonsthrough the lunar cycle and investigate may be made between sets of its time of rising over a one-month data relating to different locations period. or time. Such analyses of data

attempt to identify possible causal relationships.

Type 7. Researching, analysing and explaining data collected and reported by other scientists

Examples FeaturesSearch meteorological records and The student must decide where thelocate data for monthly rainfall in Perth data can be located and how it canover the past 50 years. Analyse the be retrieved. The data may berainfall figures. Summarise the provided by the teacher. The datafigures and present the information in must be summarised and presenteda form that helps you identify patterns in a form that helps identifyin the data. Using your knowledge of patterns (e.g. tables and graphs),meteorology, develop explanations for and conceptual knowledge should any patterns you identify. be used to explain patterns in the

data.

Type 8. Chemical analyses

Examples FeaturesUse qualitative chemical analysis to An extensive knowledge of identify this unknown chemical. solubility rules, tests for gases,Use quantitative chemical analysis reactions of acids, flame tests, to determine the percentage indicators, gravimetric techniquescomposition of ethanoic acid in or titration techniques are used to vinegar. plan the analysis. With quantitative

analysis, repetition of tests is used to get a fix on measurement error.

of investigations

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Implementing open investigationsin scienceBarriers tochange

The primary science curriculumoften has too little practical workand, at the lower-secondary level,practical work is dominated byclosed, worksheet-based practicalexercises. If more openinvestigations are to be introducedto the science curriculum, severalbarriers to change must beaddressed. The following concernsof teachers represent impedimentsto the implementation of more openinvestigation work:

➥ The curriculum is too crowdedwith content to be covered andtherefore there is not enoughtime to introduce investigations.

➥ Traditional assessments focuson mastery of content and donot reward teachers andstudents who spend timedeveloping investigation skills.

➥ Difficulties associated withlarge numbers of students,equipment, safety and thediversity of experiments makeclassroom managementdifficult.

➥ Students cannot work withoutset procedures.

The replacement of syllabusesspecified in terms of contentstatements and lists of objectiveswith a curriculum frameworkspecified in terms of a smallnumber of more global outcomesfrees teachers to develop

conceptual understandings inselected contexts, thus makingspace and time for the introductionof open investigations. With theinclusion of the WorkingScientifically – Investigatingoutcome, students will be assessedand rewarded for developinginvestigation skills.

Students who are passive followersof teachers’ instructions andworksheets on structured practicalexercises will find it difficult tobecome autonomous decision-makers within open investigationtasks. Students will need scaffolding(Vygotsky, 1978) to provide aframework which supports them inmaking decisions about planningand conducting investigations.

Planning and report sheetsdeveloped in the WesternAustralian trial of the WorkingScientifically – Investigating strandhave been found useful by teachersin leading students through asequence of decision-making stepsas they plan and conduct theirinvestigation, analyse their dataand evaluate their investigation.

The support provided by the sheetsreduces the students’ dependenceon teachers for instructions andthereby reduces the teachers’management problems.

The sheets also provide amechanism for students to recordtheir thinking and doing at thevarious phases of investigation andtherefore to collect informationneeded by teachers for assessmentpurposes.

Scaffoldingstudents’investigations,using planningand reportsheets

Planning and report sheets havebeen developed for students atdifferent levels of experience andcompetence with investigations. Thefirst sheet (see Appendix 1) hasbeen used by children with goodlanguage skills in the early andmiddle childhood years. This sheetis structured using the followingstatements and questions:

Figure 5. Statements and questions from the early and middle childhood planning and report sheet

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Question Purpose of question

I am going to investigate ... Students focus on the problem and formulate a question for investigation.

What I think will happen Students make a prediction.

Why I think it will happen Students justify their prediction using existing knowledge, beliefs andexperiences. Prior knowledge is activated.

What I am going to do Students plan the procedure.

What I will need Students identify materials and equipment needed for their investigation.

How I will make it a fair test Students refine their plan to ensure that tests are fair and variables arecontrolled.

What happened Students record their observations and measurements.

Was this what I expected? Students compare what happened with their prediction. It may force themto confront any discrepancies between their beliefs and their data.

Why it happened Students construct an explanation for their data.

What was difficult for me? Students reflect on what they did, how they did it, what was difficult and,perhaps, what was not done well.

How I could improve this investigation Students identify weaknesses in their investigation and outlineimprovements that could be made.

The second planning and reportsheet (Appendix 2) is usuallyintroduced early in the middlechildhood phase of developmentand then used through this phaseand that of early adolescence.

This sheet incorporates a grid forgraphing results and someadditional and more demandingquestions:

Figure 6. Questions from the middle childhood and early adolescence planning and report sheet

1 What are you going to investigate?

2 What do you think will happen? Explain why.

3 Which variables are you going to:➥ change?➥ measure?➥ keep the same?

4 How will you make it a fair test?

5 What equipment will you need?

6 What happened? Describe your observations and record your results.

7 Can your results be presented as a graph?

8 What do your results tell you? Are there any relationships, patterns ortrends in your results?

9 Can you explain the relationships, patterns or trends in your results?Try to use some science ideas to help explain what happened.

10 What did you find out about the problem you investigated? Was theoutcome different from your prediction? Explain.

11 What difficulties did you experience in doing this investigation?

12 How could you improve this investigation, e.g. fairness, accuracy?

Figure 7. Questions from the middle and late adolescenceplanning and report sheet

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A third planning and report sheet(Appendix 3) is generally suitablefor students in middle and lateadolescence, including secondarystudents who are preparing anentry for the Science Talent Search.This worksheet uses more formallanguage and incorporates moredemanding questions than theearlier sheets.

1 What is the problem you are investigating?

2 What do you know about this topic from personal experience andfrom science?

3 What variables may affect the phenomenon you are investigating?

4 Which of the variables are you going to investigate as yourindependent variable? (This is the variable you will change to seewhat effect it has on the dependent variable)

5 How will the independent variable be changed in the experiment?

6 What is the dependent variable (i.e. the variable that responds tochanges in the independent variable)?

7 How will you measure the dependent variable?

8 What question are you investigating?ORWhat hypothesis are you testing? State your hypothesis as arelationship between the independent and dependent variables.

9 Predict what you think will happen. Explain why.

10 What variables are to be controlled (kept constant) to make it a fairtest?

11 Describe your experimental set-up using a labelled diagram andexplain how you will collect your data.

12 Are there any special safety precautions?

13 Carry out some preliminary trials. Were there any problems?

14 How did you modify your experiment to fix the problems?

15 Collect and record the data you need to test your hypothesis. Drawyour data table here.

16 How did you make sure your data were accurate?

17 What is the best way to present your data? Is it appropriate to drawa graph? What type of graph is most suitable?

18 Analyse your data. Are the any patterns or trends in your data?What is the relationship between the variables you haveinvestigated? Is the hypothesis supported by the data?

19 Using science concepts, explain the patterns, trends or relationshipsyou have identified in your data. What is your conclusion?

20 What were the main sources of experimental error (sample size andselection, measurement error, poor control of variables)?

21 How confident are you of your conclusions?

22 How could the design of the experiment have been improved toreduce error?

23 What have you learned about the topic of your investigation? Wasthe outcome different from your prediction? Explain.

24 What have you learned about the methods of investigating inscience?

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Students who have hadconsiderable experience inconducting their own investigationsand have developed a schema forplanning investigations may havethe scaffolding reduced.

When assessing students’investigation skills, it may also beappropriate to present the task in aform that has less scaffolding. Inthese circumstances, the formatshown in Figure 8 may beappropriate for presenting the task.

A photocopy master is provided asAppendix 4.

The Five Steps of Investigation

FirstWrite a short statement that makes clear what the problem is that youhave to solve. Also write a research question or hypothesis, and then aprediction. Give a reason for your prediction.

SecondWrite a plan which says what you intend doing. Say what you will do tomake any tests fair. Explain what measurements are to be made and howthey will be made. Draw a diagram to show how the equipment will beused to conduct your tests.

ThirdCarry out your investigation and record all your observations andmeasurements. If you found that you needed to change your plan writedown what changes were made and why they were necessary. Presentyour data in a way that helps show the patterns or trends in your results.

FourthWrite a couple of paragraphs in response to these questions: What patternsor trends were present in the results? How do you explain the patterns?What did your results show you about the question or hypothesis that youwere investigating?

FifthWrite a paragraph that evaluates your investigation. Were your findingswhat you expected? To what extent did you reduce the errors associatedwith measurement, controlling variables and sampling?

Figure 8. A five-step scaffold for a student investigation.

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Other scaffolding tools

Students often need additionalguidance and support to help themwrite a question for investigation orplan the design of the investigationso that tests are fair by controllingvariables. Three additionalscaffolding tools that address theseproblems are described here.Teachers need to model theirpurpose so that students canunderstand how to use them.

➥ The researchable-questionsalgorithm

The general structure of aresearchable question is illustratedbelow, with two gaps to be filled.

What happens to (DV) when

we change (IV) ?

The gaps correspond to thedependent variable and theindependent variable. This scaffold,

without naming the types ofvariables with younger children,can be used to help children writetheir own questions.

For example: What happens to thegrowth of wheat when we changethe salinity of the water?

From researchable questionsstudents can learn to writehypotheses. Hypotheses arestatements of tentative ideas to betested which are expressed in theform of a relationship between anindependent variable and adependent variable. The generalstructure of an hypothesis istherefore:

(This change in the independentvariable) + (will cause this tohappen to) + (the dependentvariable).

Increasing the salinity of water (IV)will reduce (relationship) the growthof wheat plants (DV).

Researchable questions tend to beused with younger children, whenthe independent variable isdiscrete, and when there is littleprior knowledge and experience of

the phenomenon to guide thewriting of an hypothesis. To writean hypothesis, the students musthave sufficient observations,experience and knowledge of thephenomenon to state the expectedrelationship between the variables.

➥ ‘Cows Moo Softly’ is auseful scaffold to remindstudents how to plan a fairtest

• Change something

• Measure something

and

• Keep everything else the Same

➥ Variables tables

Variables tables are useful tools forhelping students to plan controlledexperiments and develop anunderstanding of the three types ofvariables that need to beconsidered in the planning phase.

Figure 9 shows a completedvariables table for an experiment toinvestigate the question ‘How doesthe amount of light affect thegrowth of seedlings?’

Research question: How does the amount of light affect the growth of seedlings?

What I will keep the same What I will change What I will measure

Type of seeds The amount of light: The height of theType of soil dark seedlingsAmount of water partial shadeAmount of fertiliser full sunSize of containerPlanting depth of seeds

Controlled variables Independent variable Dependent variable

Figure 9. A completed variables table (Hackling & Fairbrother, 1996)

19


Cooperativelearningstrategies foreffectiveinvestigationwork

The effectiveness and success of allsmall-group work is dependent onstudents having a clearunderstanding of the task to becompleted, sufficient priorknowledge and skill for the task,sufficient time and cooperativelearning skills.

The Primary Investigationscurriculum structures small-groupwork with groups of three usingthree roles:

➥ The equipment manager, whois responsible for collecting,checking and returningequipment;

➥ The speaker, who is the onlygroup member who can ask theteacher or another group’sspeaker for help, and only afterthe group has formulated aclear question; and,

➥ The director, who isresponsible for making sure thatthe team understands the taskand steps to be followed.

In secondary schools where groupsizes are often increased to fourmembers, an additional role canbe used:

➥ The reporter, who isresponsible for reporting backto the class on the group’sfindings.

A photocopy master of these fourgroup roles is provided asAppendix 5.

Basic skills for effective andcooperative group work include:

➥ moving into your groupsquickly and quietly;

➥ speaking softly so that onlyyour team-mates can hear you;

➥ staying with your group;

➥ using your team-mates’ names;

➥ looking at the person speakingto you;

➥ letting others finish withoutinterrupting;

➥ praising others; and

➥ treating others politely.

These expectations can becommunicated to students throughinstructions, rules and modelling. Itis useful for students to completeself-evaluation exercises to givefeedback on their development ofthese cooperative learning skills.

Once these basic skills areestablished, more advanced skillscan be introduced, including:

➥ encouraging others toparticipate;

➥ being sure that everyoneunderstands;

➥ disagreeing with the idea notthe person; and

➥ generating alternative ideasand explanations and choosingthe explanation which best fitsthe data.

20

Assessing open investigationsusing Student Outcome Statements

Purposes ofassessment

In the past, much of the energy andtime devoted to assessment hasbeen used for summativepurposes: that is, to generategrades for reporting. Unfortunately,this assessment has not contributedto the improvement of learningbecause the data are commonlycollected at the end of a unit ofwork after the learning hasoccurred. The assessmentframework provided by the StudentOutcome Statements provides adevelopmental continuum tostructure formative assessmentthat is conducted during a unit ofwork and is used to providefeedback to teachers and learnersabout what has been achieved andwhat must be learned next.Because the Outcome Statementsare criterion referenced and inlevels, they provide standards thatcan also be used by the school andthe system for quality assurancepurposes.

Sources ofassessmentinformation

In early childhood classes,teachers’ observations of childrenat work, students’ drawings andoral questioning of children by theteacher are important sources ofinformation. As children develop

Figure 10. Sources of assessment data and their relativeimportance as children’s skills develop

skills of written communication,written work samples becomevaluable. At various stages ofinvestigation, groups may reportback to the class on progressachieved. These oral reports alsogive the teacher insights intostudents’ investigation skills. Therelative importance of thesedifferent sources of information atdifferent levels is illustrated inFigure 10.

Teacher observations andquestioning

Oral reports

Written reports

Level 1 Level 8

21


The collection of assessmentinformation, in the form of writtenwork samples, for makingjudgements about students’ levels ofwork in Investigating Scientificallyis facilitated by using the planningand report sheets.

The questions on the sheets elicitfrom students information that isneeded to make judgements usingOutcome Statements. The questionsare linked to the assessment criteriain the Planning, Conducting,Processing and Evaluatingsubstrands of InvestigatingScientifically.

Observational data can berecorded as anecdotal records onadhesive tags, checklists or directlyonto the students’ planning andreport sheets. Observations can berecorded on an opportunistic basisor may be pre-planned.

Collecting information and makingjudgements are progressiveprocesses. A few earlyobservations and work samplesmay be assessed informally tomake tentative judgements, toguide teaching and learning, andto identify further information thatmust be collected to make a moreconsidered and confidentjudgement that might be used forsummative purposes.

It is efficient, initially, to collect asmuch information as possible in theform of written work samples andthen to identify what furtherinformation is needed. Additionalor missing information may becollected by returning the writtenreport to the student with a requestto document particular missinginformation or, where necessary, byobserving subsequentinvestigations.

Work samples collected using theplanning and report sheets duringthe 1995-1997 trial provideduseful information for makingjudgements about students’ levels ofInvestigating Scientifically.However, because students tend tointerpret their investigation work interms of their own beliefs, the worksamples only provided limitedevidence about conceptualdevelopment.

Following the investigation, whenstudents have completed furtherreading and discussion of conceptsrelated to the investigation, it wouldbe useful to return their planningand report sheets and ask them towrite, on a separate sheet ofpaper, one or two paragraphsinterpreting their results in terms ofthe concepts discussed in class.This explanation will provideevidence about conceptualdevelopment and can be stapled tothe back of the planning and reportsheet.

Students’ performance will beinfluenced by group membership,task and context variables. It istherefore necessary to collectseveral samples spanning differenttasks and contexts and to make an‘on-balance’ judgement of the levelat which the student is working.Where there is a concern aboutcollecting information about aparticular student, that is notcontaminated by the thinking ofother group members, it may benecessary to implement theoccasional investigation byfollowing this procedure:

1 Set the context and introduce theproblem to be investigated.

2 Students work individually toplan the investigation, recordingtheir plans on planning andreport sheets.

3 Collect the students’ plans.

4 Discuss the various approachesdevised by the students and,through whole-class discussion,select the best plan.

5 Students work in groups to carryout the experimental work andcollect the data.

6 Students work individually usingplanning and report sheets torecord their analysis of the dataand their evaluation of theinvestigation.

7 Collect the planning and reportsheets for assessment.

22

Using theOutcomeStatements tomakejudgementsabout students’achievement

The Student Outcome Statementsfor the Investigating Scientificallyassessment framework are shownas Appendix 6 and the outcomesfor the first three levels areillustrated in Figure 11.

The Foundation Outcome Statement(FOS) has been included forchildren with disabilities. Higherlevels of investigating are describedas a developmental continuumthrough Levels 1-8. These levels ofachievement of investigatingoutcomes do not correspond withgrade/year levels.

When the outcomes were firstwritten in the Curriculum Profile forAustralian Schools (CurriculumCorporation, 1994), there was anexpectation that many year 3students would be working at Level2, many year 7 students would beworking at Level 4 and many year10 students would be working atLevel 6.

Data obtained from research(Hackling & Garnett, 1995),trialing of outcome statements inWestern Australian schools, andfrom the 1993 Monitoring

Standards in Education tests(Education Department of WesternAustralia, 1994) indicate that theseassumptions were a little ambitious,especially for years 7 and 10, andit appears that students will needthe opportunity to practise theseskills over several years to attainthese levels of achievement.

Prior to the widespreadimplementation of openinvestigation work in schools, therehas been insufficient opportunity forstudents to practise these skills.

The strand outcome statements (theboxes that go right across thetable) are helpful in making globaljudgements.

The substrand outcome statementsare used for making judgements –within the substrands of Planning,Conducting, Processing andEvaluating – which can identifystrengths and weaknesses instudents’ investigation achievement.

Pointers are provided to illustratethe types of behaviours thatindicate the level at which astudent is working.

23


Figure 11. Student Outcome Statements for the Investigating Scientifically strand

Level

FOS

Level 1

Level 2

Planning investigations

The student demonstrates an awareness of, explores and responds to objects and events in the environmentusing the senses; and is able to make choices based on experience.

The student demonstrates an awareness of familiar objects and events.

This will be evident when students, for example:

➥ anticipate familiar routines, e.g. put school bags in correct place

➥ give sensory focus to a display or investigation, e.g. look, touch, smell, hear, taste

➥ identify objects, e.g. point to lunch box.

The student focuses on a problem, responds to teacher’s suggestions to carry out simple activities requiringobservation and sharing of observations.

The student focuses on problems and responds to teacher’s suggestions and questions.


➥ tell about their ownexperiences of a phenomenon

➥ contribute to a list of whatthe class members know about a topic

➥ respond to teacher questions about ‘What would we like to know?’‘How can we find out?’

The student, when given a focus question and a familiar situation, contributes elementary ideas about variablesand procedures, collects and makes limited records of data and can say whether what happened was expected.

The student identifies, given afocus question in a familiarcontext, some of the variables to be considered.


➥ contribute to brainstormingof variables that could be considered

➥ recognise which variable isto be the focus of the investigation

➥ say how information willbe gathered about thevariable.

Evaluating theinvestigation

The studentdemonstrates choicemaking skills.

➥ request actionsand activities toexperience desiredeffect

➥ indicatelikes/dislikes, suchas choosing apreferred toy

➥ demonstrate thatobjects have thesame function indifferentenvironments.

No outcome specifiedat this level.

➥ Not applicable.

The studentcomments on whathappened and cansay whether whathappened wasexpected.

➥ comment on whathappened

➥ can say whetherwhat happenedwas expected

➥ can say whetherthe outcome wasdifferent from theprediction.

Conductinginvestigations

The student explores theenvironment using thesenses.

➥ follow a one- or two-stepinstruction

➥ search for source ofstimuli, such as turningtheir head to the directionof music

➥ explore objects using thesenses, such as smellingand tasting ingredientsduring cooking.

The student carries outactivities involving a smallnumber of steps; andobserves and describes.

➥ collect materials followingteacher directions

➥ carry out an investigationinvolving a small numberof steps

➥ tell what they did andobserved.

The student observes,classifies, describes andmakes simple non-standardmeasurements and limitedrecords of data; and usesindependent variables thatare usually discrete.

➥ use simple, non-standardmeasurements

➥ use pictures, words ornumbers to recordobservations

➥ place objects into groups.

Processing data

The student responds to anobject or event.

➥ respond to a change in afamiliar routine, such asshowing excitementwhen celebrating abirthday in class

➥ respond to sensorystimulation, such assmiling when a cause-and-effect toy is activated

➥ communicate response toan experience, such aschanging facialexpressions after tastingvarious foods.

The student sharesobservations.

➥ tell what they observed➥ act out what they did or

what happened➥ draw what happened.

The student makescomparisons betweenobjects or events observed.

➥ compare events, such as’The marble rolled furtheron the steeper slope’

➥ compare places, such as‘There were moreanimals in the bush thanin the park’.

24

The process of using the outcomestatements to make judgementsabout the level of workdemonstrated by a work sample isillustrated using an extract from awork sample provided by Tim, ayear 6 student (Figure 12). Tim wasinvestigating the effect of changingthe weight of an empty ice-creamcontainer, by adding sand, on thedistance it could be propelledacross the floor using an elasticband stretched between the legs ofa chair.

This extract from Tim’s work sampleshows his planning for theinvestigation. Some of the variablesto be considered have beenidentified – weight and distance.The sample is therefore at least atLevel 2 for planning. In addition tothis, there is evidence of someawareness of the need for fairtesting ‘... using the same bandand the same container’.

The sample also includes aprediction: ‘I think the containerwith a bit of weight would go thefurthest’. The sample thereforemeets the requirements of Level 3.

25


Using formativeassessment toinform teachingand learning

The continuum of outcomestatements in the assessmentframework is a basis for providingappropriate formative assessmentfeedback to students: for example,a student who is investigating theeffect of the height from which aball is dropped on the height towhich it bounces may only betaking one measurement orconducting one trial at each dropheight. The failure to make repeattrials at each drop height may bethe only thing preventing thestudent from achieving Level 4 forConducting Investigations.

An effective way to help the studentunderstand the need for repeattrials is to ask if he or she thinksthat if the ball was dropped fromthe same height several times, itwould bounce to the same heighteach time. If the student predictsthat the ball will bounce to thesame height each time, ask for therepeat trials to be performed toillustrate the variation in the heightsthat occurs.

A discussion of the sources of errorwill then help the student tounderstand the variations that occurdue to measurement error and lackof control over variables and theneed for repeat trials andaveraging. Locating a student onthe continuum and identifyingwhich skills are preventingmovement to the next level informsthe teacher about the experiencesthat need to be provided for thestudent to develop the skillsrequired to move to the next level.

Using portfoliosfor assessment ofopen investigationwork

Portfolios provide a useful approachto involving students in collectingevidence to demonstrate theirlearning in the InvestigatingScientifically strand.

Judgements about a student’s levelof competence need to be based ona collection of work samplesbecause performance is influencedby task and context variables. Areliable judgement, therefore,should be made as an ‘on-balance’judgement across, say, four or fiveinvestigation work samples.

The involvement of students inselecting which samples areincluded in the portfolio requiresthem to consider the features of agood investigation – what criteriadistinguish poor, average, good oroutstanding investigation work?

The provision of clearly expressedoutcome statements may encouragedialogue which will help students tounderstand the requirements forimproved performance.

Appendix 7 shows how outcomestatements can be written in a formaccessible to students, and providesa self-evaluation worksheet that canbe used by students to evaluate theirown work—identifying theirstrengths, weaknesses and whatthey need to do better.

Once students have conducted theirself-evaluation, the teacher can gothrough the same process.

The completed evaluation sheetenclosed with the portfolio providesuseful information to parents andwould provide a focus for a parent-teacher interview.

The sample also meets theexpectations of Level 4, in that thestudent identifies the variable to bechanged (weight), the variable tobe measured (distance) and at leastone variable to be controlled (sameband and container).

The sample does not showevidence of formulating a questionor hypothesis and there is noevidence that the key variable ofhow far the band was stretchedback was being controlled.

It would appear that, from theavailable evidence, the worksample represents planning at Level4. Tim may have controlled thedistance that the band was pulledback, but simply not recorded it onthe planning and report sheet.

For this reason, written worksamples do need to besupplemented with observationaldata.

26

ReferencesCollins, A., Brown, J. S. & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: teaching the crafts of reading, writing

and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction (pp. 453-494). Hillsdale, N.J.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Curriculum Corporation (1994). A curriculum profile for Australian schools. Carlton, Victoria: CurriculumCorporation.

Curriculum Council of Western Australia (1998). Curriculum framework for kindergarten to Year 12 education inWestern Australia. Perth: the Council.

Education Department of Western Australia. (1994). Profiles of student achievement 1993: Student performance inscience in Western Australian government schools. Perth: the Department.

Education Department of Western Australia. (1998). Outcomes and Standards Framework. Perth: the Department.

Garnett, P. J., Garnett, P. J. & Hackling, M. W. (1995). Refocussing the chemistry lab: a case for laboratory-basedinvestigations. Australian Science Teachers Journal, 41 (2), 26-32.

Gott, R. & Duggan, S. (1996). Practical work: Its role in the understanding of evidence in science. InternationalJournal of Science Education, 18 (7), 791-806.

Gott, R. & Murphy, P. (1987). Assessing investigations at ages 13 and 15. London: Department of Education andScience, Assessment of Performance Unit.

Hackling, M. W. (1994). Using a V-map to structure prelab and postlab discussions. Australian Science TeachersJournal, 40 (4), 57-58.

Hackling, M. W. & Fairbrother, R. W. (1996). Helping students to do open investigations in science. AustralianScience Teachers Journal, 42 (4), 26-33.

Hackling, M. W. & Garnett, P. J. (1995). The development of expertise in science investigation skills. AustralianScience Teachers Journal, 41 (4), 80-86.

Hegarty-Hazel, E. (1986). Lab work SET: research information for teachers, No.1. Canberra: The Australian Councilfor Educational Research.

Hennessy, S. (1993). Situated cognition and cognitive apprenticeship: implications for classroom learning. Studiesin Science Education 22, 1-41.

Kuhn, D. (1989). Children and adults as intuitive scientists. Psychological Review, 96 (4), 674-689.

Kuhn, D., Schauble, L. & Garcia-Mila, M. (1992). Cross-domain development of scientific reasoning. Cognition andInstruction, 9 (4), 285-327.

Jones, A., Simon, S., Fairbrother, R., Watson, R., & Black, P. J. (1992). Development of open work in school science.Hatfield: Association for Science Education.

National Academy of Sciences & National Research Council (1996). National science education standards.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Mayer, E. (1992). Putting general education to work: The key competencies report. Canberra: Australian EducationCouncil.

Novak, J. D. & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tamir, P. (1989). Training teachers to teach effectively in the laboratory. Science Education, 73, 59-69.

Staer, H. Goodrum, D. & Hackling, M. (1998). High school laboratory work in Western Australia: openness toinquiry. Research in Science Education, 28(2), 219-228.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge MA:Harvard University Press.

Woolnough, B. E. (1994). Effective science teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press.

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY – APPENDICES 27

Working

Scientifically

Appendix

1: Early and middle childhood planning and report sheet

2: Middle childhood and early adolescence planning and report sheet

3: Early and late adolescence planning and report sheet

4: The five steps of investigation

5: Roles for cooperative group work

6: Student Outcome Statements for Investigating Scientifically

7: Science investigations self-evaluation checklist

28 WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY – APPENDIX 1

Planning and Report Worksheet for Science Investigations

Student name --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Other members of your group --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

I am going to investigate:

What I think will happen:

Why I think it will happen:

What I am going to do:

What I will need:

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY – APPENDIX 1 29

How I will make it a fair test:

What happened:

Was this what I expected?

Why it happened:

What was difficult for me?

How I could improve this investigation:



Student name ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Class -------------------------------------------------------------

Other members of your group-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

What are you going to investigate?

What do you think will happen? Explain why.

Which variables are you going to:

● change?

● measure?

● keep the same?

How will you make it a fair test?

What equipment will you need?


What happened? Describe your observations and record your results.

Can your results be presented as a graph?


What do your results tell you? Are there any relationships, patterns or trends in your results?

Can you explain the relationships, patterns or trends in your results? Try to use some scienceideas to help explain what happened?

What did you find out about the problem you investigated? Was the outcome different from yourprediction? Explain.

What difficulties did you experience in doing this investigation?

How could you improve this investigation, for example, fairness, accuracy?



Student name --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Other members of your group-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Phase one: Planning

What is the problem you are investigating?

What do you know about this topic from personal experience and from science?

What variables may affect the phenomenon you are investigating?

Which of the variables are you going to investigate as your independent variable (this is thevariable you will change to see what effect it has on the dependent variable)?


How will the independent variable be changed in the experiment?

What is the dependent variable (i.e. the variable that responds to changes in the independentvariable)?

How will you measure the dependent variable?

What question are you investigating?

OR

What hypothesis are you testing? State your hypothesis as a relationship between theindependent and dependent variables.

Predict what you think will happen. Explain why.

What variables are to be controlled (kept constant) to make it a fair test?


Describe your experimental set-up using a labelled diagram and explain how you will collectyour data.

Are there any special safety precautions?


Phase two: Experimenting

Carry out some preliminary trials. Were there any problems?

How did you modify your experiment to fix the problems?

Collect and record the data you need to test your hypothesis. Draw your data table here.

Title of table:

How did you make sure your data were accurate?


Phase three: Data analysis

What is the best way to present your data? Is it appropriate to draw a graph? What type ofgraph is most suitable?

● Remember to plot the independent variable on the horizontal axis.

● Remember that the title of the graph should mention both the independent and dependent variables.

Use the graph paper on the next page.

Analyse your data. Are there any patterns or trends in your data? What is the relationshipbetween the variables you have investigated? Is the hypothesis supported by the data?

Using science concepts explain the patterns, trends or relationships you have identified in yourdata. What is your conclusion?


Draw your graph on this page.

Title:


Phase four: Evaluation

What were the main sources of experimental error (sample size and selection, measurementerror, poor control of variables)?

How confident are you with your conclusions? How much uncertainty/error is associated withyour data?

How could the design of the experiment have been improved to reduce error?

What have you learned about the topic of your investigation? Was the outcome different fromyour prediction? Explain.

What have you learned about the methods of investigating in science?


The Five Steps ofInvestigation

FirstWrite a short statement that makes clear what the problem is that youhave to solve. Also write a research question or hypothesis, and then aprediction. Give a reason for your prediction.

SecondWrite a plan which says what you intend doing. Say what you will do tomake any tests fair. Explain what measurements are to be made andhow they will be made. Draw a diagram to show how the equipmentwill be used to conduct your tests.

ThirdCarry out your investigation and record all your observations and meas-urements. If you found that you needed to change your plan, write downwhat changes were made and why they were necessary. Present yourdata in a way that helps show the patterns or trends in your results.

FourthWrite a couple of paragraphs in response to these questions: What pat-terns or trends were present in the results? How do you explain the pat-terns? What did your results show you about the question or hypothesisthat you were investigating?

FifthWrite a paragraph that evaluates your investigation. Were your findingswhat you expected? To what extent did you reduce the errors associatedwith measurements, controlling variables and sampling?


Roles for CooperativeGroup Work

ManagerThe equipment manager is responsible for collecting,checking and returning equipment.

SpeakerThe speaker is the only group member who can ask theteacher or another group’s speaker for help, and onlyafter the group has formulated a clear question.

DirectorThe director is responsible for making sure that the teamunderstands the task and steps to be followed.

ReporterThe reporter is responsible for reporting back to class onthe group’s findings.


The student: The student:

LEVEL

8

LEVEL

7

LEVEL

6

5LEVEL

4LEVEL

3LEVEL

LEVEL

2

1LEVEL

OSF

Strand:

ISF.2

IS1.1

IS2.1

IS3.1

IS4.1

IS1.2

IS2.2

IS3.2

IS4.2

Focuses on problems and responds to teacher’ssuggestions and questions.

Identifies, given a focus question in a familiarcontext, some of the variables to be considered.

Plans for investigations, showing some awarenessof the need for fair testing; and makes simplepredictions (not guesses) based on personalexperience.

Identifies the variables to be changed, the variableto be measured and at least one variable to becontrolled or, in a descriptive study, plans for thetypes of observations that need to be made.

Carries out activities involving a small number ofsteps; and observes and describes.

Observes, classifies, describes and makes simplenon-standard measurements and limited recordsof data; and uses independent variables that areusually discrete.

Uses simple equipment in a consistent manner;and records data in simple tables, diagrams orobservations.

Takes care with data collection so that data areaccurate; uses repeated trials or replicates; and usesindependent variables that are usually continuous.

IS5.1

IS5.2

Analyses problems, formulates a question orhypothesis for testing, and plans an experiment inwhich several variables are controlled.

Uses equipment that is appropriate for the task;and uses preliminary trials of the investigativeprocedure to improve the procedure ormeasurement techniques.

IS6.1

IS6.2

Analyses a problem, formulates a question orhypothesis for testing, uses scientific knowledge toidentify main variables to be considered and makepredictions, and plans for accurate measurement.

Decides what is needed and requests equipmentfor the investigation; and selects equipment andinstruments that enhance the safety and accuracyof measurements and observations.

IS7.1

IS7.2

Identifies own real-world problem forinvestigation, uses reference material in developingan understanding of the problem, and plans oneor more experiments in an ongoing investigation.

Makes systematic observations and measurementswith precision, using standardised techniques andrecognises when to repeat measurements.

IS8.1

IS8.2

Shows, in planning and working independently,an a priori recognition for the need for control ofvariables, accuracy of measurement, adequatesample size and repeated trials or replications.

Makes judgements about the accuracy required,range and intervals of measurement, and decideswhat observations are necessary and sufficient inqualitative work.

Demonstrates an awareness of familiarobjects and events.

Explores the environment using the senses.ISF.1

ConductingStudents collect and record a variety of informationrelevant to their investigations.

PlanningStudents plan investigations to test ideas about thenatural and technological world.

Investigating Scientifically

OFSThe Foundation Outcome Statements (FOS) have been written for studentswith intellectual disabilities. For many of these students, achievement of theearly levels of Student Outcome Statements may be a long-term goal.

Student Outcome Statements


The student: The student:

IS1.3

IS2.3

IS3.3

IS4.3

Shares observations.

Makes comparisons between objects or eventsobserved.

Displays numerical data as tables or bar graphs,and identifies patterns in data and summarises thedata.

Calculates averages from repeated trials orreplicates; plots data as line graphs whereappropriate; and makes conclusions whichsummarise and explain patterns in the data.

IS5.3

Makes conclusions which are consistent with thedata and explains patterns in the data in terms ofscientific knowledge.

IS6.3

Selects the type of graph and scales that display dataeffectively; and draws conclusions which are consistentwith the data, explained in terms of scientific knowledgeand related to the question, hypothesis or prediction.

IS7.3

Draws conclusions which are consistent with the data,explains them in terms of scientific knowledge and doesnot over-generalise; and questions whether the data aresufficient to support the conclusions drawn.

IS8.3

Identifies anomalous observations and measurements andallows for these when drawing graphs and conclusions; anddraws conclusions which show awareness of uncertainty indata and does not over-generalise, and includes a discussionof limitations, the methods of data collection and/ordesign.

Responds to an object or event. Demonstrates choice-making skills.

IS1.4

IS2.4

No outcome specified at this level.

Comments on what happened and can saywhether what happened was expected.

IS3.4

IS4.4

Identifies difficulties experienced in doing theinvestigation.

Makes general suggestions for improving theinvestigation.

IS5.4

IS6.4

Suggests specific changes that would improve thetechniques used or the design of the investigation.

Recognises inconsistencies in the data, identifiesthe main sources of error and suggestsimprovements that would reduce the source oferror.

IS7.4

IS8.4

Recognises sources of measurement error,limitations in sampling and inadequacies in controlof variables, and explains how these deficienciescan be remedied.

ISF.4

ISF.3

Processing DataStudents translate and analyse information to find patternsand draw conclusions to extend their understanding.

EvaluatingStudents reflect on an investigation, evaluate the processand generate further ideas.

Evaluates the findings and the experimental design,reformulates the problem and plans follow-upexperiments in an ongoing investigation, and makesrefinements to experimental techniques and design.


Algebra

The student:

Students use algebraic symbols, diagrams and graphs to understand, describe and reason.

Demonstrates an awareness of, explores and responds to objects and events in the environment using the senses;and is able to make choices based on experience.

IS7

IS8

IS6

IS5

IS4

IS3

IS2

IS1

ISF

Students investigate to answer questions about the natural and technological world, using reflection and analysis to prepare aplan; to collect, process and interpret data; to communicate conclusions; and to evaluate their plan, procedures and findings.

Investigating Scientifically Strand Outcome Statements

When given a focus question and a familiar situation, contributes elementary ideas about variables and procedures,collects and makes limited records of data and can say whether what happened was expected.

Shows an a priori knowledge of the need to take into account particular issues and factors when conducting aninvestigation; and critically analyses procedures and results to produce valid and reliable information to inform theongoing refinement of investigation designs and techniques.

Identifies from research a significant scientific issue for investigation and develops procedures to systematically producea series of precise, accurate data and/or information; draws credible conclusions that are consistent with own andother detailed data; and recognises limitations, acknowledges sources of error and proposes various improvements.

Uses scientific knowledge to analyse a problem, identify variables and formulate questions for investigation; developsmethods that provide specific, accurate, consistent information which can be used to evaluate the question;recognises inconsistencies with the data; and suggests ways of reducing error.

Interprets a situation to formulate a plausible relationship to investigate using experimental techniques, including thecontrol of several variables and the use of preliminary trials or various information sources; develops scientificexplanations that are consistent with the data; and makes specific suggestions for improving the investigation.

Plans and conducts different types of investigations, taking account of the main variables; collects data using repeattrials or replicates; explains patterns in data or information prepared in different formats; and makes generalsuggestions for improving the investigation.

Shows some awareness of the need for fair testing and makes simple predictions; collects and organises numerical dataand descriptive information using simple tables, diagrams and graphs; and identifies main features, patterns anddifficulties in the investigation.

Focuses on a problem, responds to teacher’s suggestions to carry out simple activities requiring observation andsharing of observations.


Science investigations self-evaluation checklist

What I can do well:

Level Skills of planning the investigation Yes / No

1 When we plan the investigation I can say what I know about the topic and can say what we want to find out.

2 When we plan the investigation I can say which things we could change or measure.

3 When we plan the investigation I can say how to make it a fair test.

3 I can say what will happen before we do the test.

4 I can identify the thing we will change, the thing we will measure and one thing that we must keep the same.

Level Skills of doing the investigation Yes / No

1 I can say what I have done and what happened.

2 I can use pictures and write words to say what happened.

3 I can make measurements and record what happened as lists, diagrams or as a table of results.

4 I am careful to make sure my measurements are accurate and to do three trials for each test.

Level Skills of analysing the results Yes / No

1 I can say what happened.

2 I can say what happened differently when we changed things.

3 I can show my results as a table and bar graph and explain the pattern in the results.

4 I use averages when I draw graphs, can explain the pattern in the results and say why it happened that way.

Level Skills of evaluating our investigation work Yes / No

2 I can say if what happened was what we predicted.

3 I can explain the difficulties we had doing the investigation.

4 I can say how we could improve our investigation.

Student self-evaluation

Planning Doing the experiment Recording and Evaluating ourinvestigations and collecting explaining the investigation

the results results work

My strengths

My weaknesses

What I need to do better

Teacher’s evaluation

Planning Conducting Processing Evaluating theinvestigations investigations data investigation

Strengths

Weaknesses

How you canimprove yourinvestigation work

Level attained


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