World Faiths

WORLD FAITHS SECOND EDITION

S. A. Nigosian Victoria College, University of Toronto

Palgrave Macmillan

Executive editor: Don Reisman Development editor: Kristin Bowen Managing editor: Patricia Mansfield-Phelan Project editor: Diana Puglisi Production supervisor: Alan Fischer Art director: Sheree Goodman Photo research: Gene Crofts Cover art and design: Rod Hernandez

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 92-62755 Copyright © 1994 by St. Martin's Press, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.

Manufactured in the United States of America.

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For information, write: St. Martin's Press, Inc. 175 Fifth Avenue New York, NY 10010

Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http:/ /extras.springer.com

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Acknowledgments: Appreciation is expressed to the following publisher and author for permission to quote from copyrighted material: Lao Tsu, Tao Te Ching, trans. by Gia-fu and Jane English, Copyright © 1972, Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.

ISBN: 978-0-312-08414-1 (paperback)978-0-312-10274-6 (cloth)

ISBN 978-0-333-61696-3 ISBN 978-1-349-13502-8 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-13502-8

To Henaz

Leo and Donna Diana and Mike

Kevin, Rafi, Alex, and Natalie

Forevvord

Of the writing of introductions to the w_orld' s religions there is no end. The importance of the subject assures that. But World Faiths is different. As you read you find yourself watching the moving stage of the human drama through the great systems of faith, thought, and action that have won the allegiance of mil­lions. You see religious traditions in their interplay with histor­ical forces, shaping history and being shaped by it. You see them alive and changing-sometimes dying from inner atrophy or outer pressures. You see common features in similar stages of development as though different actors used the same stage props. Then the old becomes new as, responding to thought, intuition, or inspiration, some actor calls for a new scene or a new act.

You see different groups on the stage at the same time, overhearing each other and unconsciously incorporating some­thing of what they hear. Finally, there is a tantalizing glimpse of the moving stage bringing on players asking one another if, in fact, they are acting in the same play. If so, are there to be dominant themes? Major and minor characters? Optional gar­ments and dialects, music and stories? Is it still to be a historical

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drama, influencing and influenced by individuals and nations, or is it to become a specialized drama of the occult? Meanwhile, it is seen to be very much alive as little groups practice new parts they believe should be worked into the pattern, and large groups respond to new challenges.

One of the strengths of this text is the absence of generaliza­tions. For instance, instead of listing the characteristics of "an­imism" or "primitive religion," World Faiths describes actual societies and their religious customs. Also notable is the near­absence of value judgments. The history of a whole spectrum of faith, ancient and modem, is presented succinctly and with a genuine attempt at fairness. Readers are left to do their own judging, if judge they must. One conviction does emerge: The moving stage has brought us to a new act in which we must all be players-players who have learned enough to respect the "lines" of others and to work with them so that humanity will survive to continue its high drama.

Kingsley J. Joblin Emeritus Professor of Religious Studies University of TorontJJ, Canada

Preface

World Faiths is a general introduction to the study of world religions. As such, it is deliberately limited and selective in concept. It presents a modern and concise picture of the more influential living religions, with special emphasis on their his­torical context. And in doing so, World Faiths provides essential information of the sort that few beginners have either the time or ability to piece together out of the enormous mass of pub­lished material on each religious tradition. The book is not, however, a definitive treatise nor a comprehensive study of all the religions of the world. It omits massive infusions of encyclopedic data and avoids esoteric points of doctrine. World Faiths is a balanced presentation, covering the historical, ideo­logical, and cultural aspects of several religions.

Several instructors who used the first edition were invited to submit their suggestions for improving the text. Their com­ments were very positive and encouraging, and wherever possible a serious effort was made to incorporate their sugges­tions. Thus, this second edition of World Faiths differs from the previous edition in several respects. Chapters that represent either Western or Eastern traditions have been grouped together. Also an attempt has been made to reproduce a more

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parallel organization between chapters. As in the first edition, each chapter deals with the traditional viewpoint as well as the latest scholarly opinion on the subject under discussion. Con­tent now includes more detail, additional scriptural quotations, and improved time lines and maps in addition to discussions of all or some of the following: background history and historical development, important characteristics, life and teachings of a founder (if any), scriptures, teachings, mythologies, roles of women, sectarian groups, practices, rituals, and observances. A glossary and bibliography are provided as aids for further study, and numerous new photographs evoke the richness of humanity's religious experiences and practices.

A quick glance at the table of contents will indicate the changes included in this second edition. The first chapter de­scribes learning strategies appropriate to the study of religion. This is followed by chapters surveying religion in prehistory (new to this edition), African religion, American Indian tradi­tions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, Taoism and Confucianism, Shinto, the roots of Western religions (Meso­potamian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman religions), Zoroastrian­ism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and, in a newly expanded discussion, Baha'i. The new concluding chapter offers a con­ceptual framework for comparing the central categories of religious thought in an emerging global culture and a religious­ly pluralistic society.

Also new to the second edition is an Instructor's Manual that offers for each chapter in World Faiths a synopsis, key terms, assignments, and multiple-choice and true-false questions. (To order, see the note at the end of this preface.)

No project of this magnitude can be accomplished without the help of others. A word of thanks is therefore in order. I want to acknowledge once again my debt of gratitude to all those who were involved with the success of the first edition, especially the reviewers of the book: Virginia Black, Pace University; Nan­cy Falk, Western Michigan University; George Kim, Manchester Community College; Harry Partin, Duke University; Franklin Proano, Ohio State University; Lynda Sexson, Montana State University; William Shealy, Virginia Wesleyan College; Donald Smith, Lakeland Community College; Maurine Stein, Prairie

Preface xi

State College; Victor Wan-Tatah, Youngstown State University; and Kenneth Zysk, Eastern Michigan University at Ypsilanti.

Although their names are mentioned there, I again want to offer my thanks to all those who helped in the preparation of the first edition: the members of the University of Toronto Advisory Committee on Educational Development, who pro­vided a grant; Grant Bracewell and Lynda Hayes, who gracious­ly helped in obtaining and loaning some hard-to-find books; Steve Jaunzems, who carefully prepared the photographs; Pat­rick Trant, who has the ability to make "the rough places plain"; and Deborah van Eeken, a faithful friend and superb typist.

Next, I want to offer special thanks to all those who were directly concerned with this second edition. To the following reviewers for their helpful suggestions: Mattie Hart, Flagler College; Scott Lowe, University of North Dakota; Judith Martin, University of Dayton; and Ronald Spores, Vanderbilt Univer­sity; to the staff of St. Martin's Press, in particular Don Reisman, Kristin Bowen, and Diana Puglisi, for their confidence and support in seeing this edition into production. I am also deeply grateful to June Hewitt, Eleanor Murphy, and Bernadette McNary for their tireless stenographic labors. My wife and family, who lived with the preparation of the manuscript for several years (and more recently, with its revision), need to be told publicly, even though they already know it, that I am grateful to them.

S. A. Nigosian

Note to Instructors

An Instructor's Manual containing approximately 460 test ques­tions is available. For more information, please write St. Mar­tin's Press, College Desk, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, or call (1-800-446-8923), or contact your local St. Mar­tin's sales representative.

Contents

Foreword vn

Preface ix

1 UNDERSTANDING RELIGION What Is Religion? 1

Etymological Definitions 1 Subjective Definitions 2 Objective Definitions 2 A Proposed Definition 4

The Study of Religion 6 Why Study Religion? 6 Approaches to the Study of Religion 7 Approaches and Goals 8 Specific Structure 12 Proper Point of View 14

Notes 15

2 RELIGION IN PREHISTORY

Archeological Discoveries 17 Human Skulls 17 Bear Skulls 19 Corpses 20 Works of Art 22 Massive Stone Structures 24

Prehistoric Civilization 26

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3

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5

AFRICAN RELIGION The Study of African Religion 27

Meaning of African Religion 27 From Cultural Prejudices to Scholarly Studies 28

African Religion in Historical Perspective 29 Beginnings 29 Precolonial Period 30 European Impact 31

Religious Interactions: Christian, Muslim, African 32

Spread of Christianity and Islam 32 Impact of Christianity and Islam 33 New Syncretistic Movements 34

African Traditional Religions 35 Dinka Religion 35 Yoruba Religion 37 Patterns of Belief 39 Manifestations of Religious Activity 45

Notes 50

AMERICAN INDIAN TRADITIONS Traditional Characteristics 53 Origins 54 Mayans 55

Sources of Mayan Religion 56 Mayan Beliefs 56 Mayan Practices 58

Aztecs 59 Sources of Aztec Religion 60 Aztec Beliefs 60 Aztec Practices 61

Modern American Indians 62 American Indian Creation Myths 64 American Indian Ceremonials 65 American Indian Values 69 Modern Trends 72

Notes 73

HINDUISM Hindu Characteristics 75 Historical Background 75 Hindu Scriptures 76 Hindu Mythology 79

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Contents xv

Development of Hinduism 79 Vedic Deities 79 The One 81 Brahman-Atman 83 Reincarnation 86 Caste 88 Stages of Life 90

Paths to Emancipation 91 Karma Marga 91 J nana Marga 93 Bhakti Marga 96

Forms of Hinduism 98 The Trimurti 98 Shaktism and Tantrism 100 Folk Hinduism 100 Cow Veneration 103

Hindu Observances 104 Ritual Purification 104 Devotional Ritual 104 Pilgrimages 106 Religious Festivals 106

Evolution of Modern Hinduism 109 Hindu-Muslim Encounters 112 Hindu-Christian Encounters 112 Women and Modernity 115

Notes 117

BUDDHISM

Historical Background 119 Gautama Buddha 120

Early Life 120 Four Sights 121 Quest for Truth 121 Temptations of Buddha 123 The Great Enlightenment 123 First Discourse 124 Founding of the Sangha 124 Buddha's Teachings 126

Development of Buddhism 132 Early Councils 132 Establishment of Monastic Orders 133 Spread of Buddhism 134 Strength of Buddhism 140 Women in Buddhist History 140 Modern Trends 141

Buddhist Scriptures 142 Buddhist Groups 143

Theravada Buddhism 143 Mahayana Buddhism 144 Tantrism 148

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Buddhist Observances 149 Relics 149 Image Worship 150 Precepts 151 Pilgrimages 151 Devotional Rites 151 Memorials and Festivals 152

Notes 153

JAINISM AND SIKHISM Jainism 157

Historical Background 157 Mahavira 157 Mahavira and Hindu Tradition 159 The Five Great Vows 160 Jain Groups 160 Jain Scriptures 162 Jain Teachings 162 Jain Practices and Institutions 164

Sikhism 166 Historical Background 166 Guru Nanak 167 Succession of Gurus 168 Khalsa 170 Militant Sikhism 170 Sikh Scripture 171 Sikh Teachings 171 Sikh Groups 172 Sikh Ceremonies and Observances 173 Modern Trends 175

Notes 176

TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM Early Chinese Religion 178

Historical Background 178 Five Classics 179 Deities and Spirits 180 Yin-Yang 181 Divination 182 Emperor Rites 182 Ancestor Rites 183 Rival Philosophical Schools 184

Taoism 185 Lao Tzu 185 Taoist Scriptures 186 Taoist Concepts 188 Taoism through the Ages 191

Confucianism 194 Historical Background 194 Confucius 196 Teachings of Confucius 199 Confucian Canon 202 Confucianism through the Ages 203 Women and Changing Traditions 208

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Contents xvii

Chinese Observances 210 Devotional Functions 211 and Festivals 212

Notes 214

SHINTO

Characteristics 217

Ceremonies

Concept of Kami 218 Gods, Nature, and Human Beings 218

Scriptures 219 Mythology 220 Shinto through the Ages 220

Early Shinto 220 Shinto, Confucianism, and Buddhism 223 Shinto and Christianity 225 State Shinto 227 Women in Shinto Tradition 230

Shinto Groups 231 Shrine Shinto 231 Sectarian Shinto 233

217

Folk (Popular) Shinto 237 New Religions 238 Shinto Observances 239

Festivals 240 Notes 243

ROOTS OF WESTERN RELIGIONS

The Middle East 245 Mesopotamian Religion 246

Historical Background 246 Mesopotamian Pantheon 248 Cult Practices 250 Religious Festivals 250 The Ziggurat 251 Mythologies 251

Egyptian Religion 253 Historical Background 253 Pharaoh Worship 255 Animal Cult 255 Egyptian Deities 256 Death and Resurrection of Osiris 258 Monotheism: Worship of Aton 259 Death, Heaven, and Hell 260 Temples, Sphinxes, and Pyramids 261 Religious Festivals 262 Occult Practices 263 Mythologies 264

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Greek Religion 264 Historical Background 264 Early Greek Religion 265 Greek Pantheon 267 Intellectual Views 269 Popular Religion 271 Mystery Religions 275

11

Greek Mythology 277 Hellenistic Religions 278

Roman Religion 278 Historical Background 278 Numina 280 Deities 281 Priests, Diviners, and Cultic Functionaries 282 Roman Religious Festivals 283 Foreign Accretions 285 Emperor Worship 291

Themes and Foreshadowings 292 Notes 294

ZOROASTRIANISM

Historical Background 298 Zoroaster 299

Revelation and Mission 301 Teachings 302 Historical Development of Zoroastrianism 304

Achaemenid Period 304 Seleucid Period 305 Parthian Period 305 Sassanid Period 306 Exile and Survival 307

Zoroastrian Scriptures 308 Zoroastrian Teachings 309

Human Choice 309 Cosmic Dualism: Ahura Mazda versus Ahriman 310 Judgment, Resurrection, Eternal Life 310 Creation, Time, Eschatology 311

Zoroastrian Observances 313 Naojote 313 Purification 315 Death 315 Fire 315 Ceremonies 316 Festivals 317

Sects 318

Modem Trends 318

Notes 320

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Contents xix

JUDAISM Historical Background 323

Canaanites 324 Philistines 325 The Patriarchs 325

Moses 327 Biblical Religion 330

Judges and Monarchs 330 Prophets 332 Exile 333

Rise of Judaism 334 Scribes and Priests 334 Jewish-Persian Contact 335 Jewish-Hellenistic Contact 337

The Bible 340 Torah 341 Prophets 344 Writings 346

Talmud and Midrash 348 Noncanonical Material 350 Jewish Teachings 351 Jewish Groups 353 Jewish Observances 356

Holy Days 358 Festivals 358 Modem Judaism 360

The Diaspora 360 State of Israel 362 Status of Women 365

Notes 367

CHRISTIANITY Historical Background 369 Christian Scriptures 371 Jesus Christ 372

Primary Sources 372 Early Life of }'esus 373 Baptism and Temptation 374 Mission and Crucifixion 375 Resurrection and Ascension 376 Teachings 377

Paul 382 Early Christianity 385 Christianity and Medieval Society 390

Spread of Christianity 390 Rivalries and Persecutions 392 Reformation and Counter-Reformation 395 The Enlightenment 397

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Modern Christianity 400 Religious Movements 400 Religious Pluralism 402 of Women 406

Christian Teachings 408 Christian Sacraments 410 Christian Observances 412

Veneration of Saints 412 Liturgical Calendar 412

Notes 414

ISLAM

Ecumenism Emancipation

Misrepresentations of Islam 417 Historical Background 419 Muhammad the Prophet 419

Divine Call and Revelation 420 Establishment of Islamic Community 421

Islamic Empires 424 Establishment of the Caliphate 424 Conquest and Settlement 425 Mongol Empire (c. 1200-1368) 428 Ottoman Empire (c. 1300-1922) 429 Mughal Empire (1526-1857) 430 Persecution and Decline 431 Abolishment of the Caliphate 433

Modern Trends 434

401

Role of Women 434 Conflict of Values 436 Qur'an 437 Hadith 441 Islamic Teachings 442

Articles of Faith 442 The Five Pillars of Islam 445 Jihad (Holy War) 448 Shari'ah (Divine Law) 449

Islamic Groups 450 Khariji 450 Sunni and Shi'ite 451 Sufi 452

Islamic Observances 453 Friday Prayer 454

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Festivals 454 Muharram 455 Other Memorials 456

Notes 456

BAHA'I

Beginnings 459 The Bab (1819-1850) 460 Baha'u'llah (1817-1892) 460 Abdul Baha (1844-1921) 462 Shoghi Effendi (1896-1957) 463

Baha'i Scriptures 463 Baha'i Teachings 463 Baha'i Worship 466 Baha'i Obligations 468 Spread of Baha'i Faith 468 Baha'i Festivals 469 Notes 470

Contents xxi

459

16 RELIGION IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 471

Global Awareness 471 New Religious Movements 472 Comparison of Religions 473

Obedience, Belief, or Submission? 475 Similarities and Differences in Ultimate Goals 477 Comparing Eastern Religions 478

Notes 480

Glossary 481

Bibliography 491

Index 521

Maps and Titne Lines

Maps

Distribution of the Major Faiths of the World 10 African Peoples 40 Traditional Locations of Native American Peoples 66 Native American Peoples 70 Hinduism 110 Life of Buddha 122 Spread of Buddhism 134 China and Japan 195 Japan 226 Egypt-Mesopotamia 254 Greece-Rome 273 Traditional Route of the Exodus 327 Cities of the Diaspora 361 Palestine at the Time of Jesus 374 Cities Visited by Paul 383 Christianity at the Time of the Schism, 1054 393 Christianity at the Treaty of Westphalia, 1648 398 Early Islam 422 Islam in 750 CE 426

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xxiv Maps and Time Lines

Time Lines

Evolution of Humans 18 Hinduism 76 Buddhism 136 Jainism and Sikhism 166 Taoism and Confucianism 204 Shinto 228 Mesopotamia and Egypt 246 Greece and Rome 266 Zoroastrianism 306 Judaism 338 Christianity 400 Islam 432 Baha'i 461

World Faiths