world forum 2000 sydney australia -...

Lloyd Owen (2000) Lifespace, Lifecourse and Lifestyle.

World Forum 2000 Sydney Australia7 to 11 August 2000Conference Proceedings“Children First in the New Millennium: A New Commitment to Children and Young People”

Hosted by ACWA for IFCWLifespace, Lifecourse and Lifestyle:Where should we look for resilience or help in thesituations of youth at risk.Lloyd OwenSenior Lecturer in Social WorkLa Trobe UniversityBundoora, Victoria, Australia

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Paper presented at World Forum 2000: Children First in the New Millenium,Sydney, New South Wales 9 August 2000 Concurrent Session 6

Lifespace, lifecourse and lifestyle: where should we look for resilience or help in the situations of youth at risk.

Lloyd OwenSenior Lecturer in Social WorkLa Trobe UniversityBundoora, Victoria 3083

ABSTRACTThis paper starts by outlining a schema for considering the situations of young peopleat risk developed by the author in dealing with young people in juvenile justice andprotective residential settings in the seventies and eighties. The model draws on socialecological approaches but has power and influence also at the core. It contains anapproach to thinking about personal factors, environmental factors and factors to dowith the interaction and relationships young people have with those around them.Through the nineties the author has undertaken a number of consultancies locally andinternationally concerning children, young people and their families. These haveincluded work on labour migration in South Asia; youth concerns in the Asia Pacificregion; a study of the Victorian Youth Attendance Order; the deinstitutionalisation ofpeople with intellectual disability; residential programs for parents with addictionsand their children; guidelines for early intervention with delinquency; consideration ofintegrated residential and education programming for young people at risk; and anexamination of young people leaving care.Perspectives are drawn from this work to enhance and test the model for relevance inthe year 2000 and the value of the perspective for policy making, planning andpractice. Issues of social support and social control are raised and the significance ofaltruism, integrity and empowering practice. Some questions are posed around qualityof life for exploration in the new millennium.

INTRODUCTIONIn the course of working in a number of institutions housing young offenders orchildren in need of care the author observed that many of the staff providing directcare had little opportunity for training and that there was a general lack of theoryinforming practice. It seemed that the mind set of carers rested mostly on their own upbringing, "on the job" folklore and experience, with some influence from thephilosophies of those in charge at the time plus procedural directives. Proceduraldirectives are often homespun remedies or reactions to incidents, perceived problemsor extreme events. Approaches and slogans would come and go with shifts inprevailing ideology, but there was infrequent opportunity to distill the best of theoryand research to make it accessible to workers in a form which would encourage

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utilisation.Further the author was struck by the heterogeneity of the population of children andyoung people and their family and social situations. Also apparent was the dynamicnature of everyday life, the kaleidoscope of presses and stresses affecting peopleshifted frequently and had many elements. Each institution was a unique and changingblend of structure and culture, they tended to be hotbeds, sometimes hothouses ofhuman behaviour, and their residential and inclusive nature made them somewhatintense microcosms of the outside world in one sense. In another sense however theycould be seen as places apart, which carried distortions of everyday life. What mightbe adaptive behaviours within, might prove to be maladaptive on return to thecommunity. The challenge was to normalise the internal environment as much aspossible and to find ways of having the residents out in the community as much aspossible.With the aims of improving understanding of the particular circumstances of the clientand of generating options for more constructive intervention an attempt was made toput together literature and experience in the form of a model which might easily becommunicated and provide a basis for ongoing staff development. This was done andsome use was made of it at the time. Changes of role and the demands of subsequentresponsibilities limited its further development and promotion. This paper sets out todescribe the model and consider its appropriateness with any necessary adjustmentsfor practice in the year 2000. Its relatively varied theoretical underpinning will not beelaborated here but maybe found in earlier work (Owen, 1982; 1985). It is essentiallya social ecological approach and it owes much to a variety of disciplines and authors.Subsequent to its development the author found it useful to draw on the concepts oflife course, life space and life style to describe its general utility. Life course impliesthe developmental pathway, trajectory or career paths of the individual through time,for example educational career, vocational career, psychosexual career, criminalcareer. Life space represents a snapshot of the person in the context of family andsocial network (microsystem) at any point in time, while lifestyle concerns thedynamic thinking, feeling and acting of the person in their systemic environment.Elements of lifestyle may originate in nature, nurture or human agency (inherited,learned or adopted). Patterns of thinking, feeling and action, often repeated, feed selfconcept, the perceptions of others and personality.The attempt is made also to connect concepts in small groups to aid understandingand recall of the ideas. It is not intended as an attempt at grand theory. It is a modelwhich aims to create a more versatile mind set and basis for reflection in assessmentand intervention planning.

THE MODELLike Bronfenbrenner, (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; and as cited in Bowes and Hayes,1999), the model conceives the person at the centre of surrounding spheres of sociocultural systems. It is argued that the person with his or her inherent attributesdevelops over time influenced by and influencing their surrounding relationships withothers, deriving power from transactions with the environment for future action.Figure 1 denotes the personal sphere situated within an environmental sphere with atransactional sphere between the two. Within each sphere are groups of ideas which

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might be a focus for understanding the particular situation and which might provide abasis for constructive action or intervention. The specifics of the model will beexplored below with some references to contemporary research and practice.

Figure 1 Three Spheres of Influence

THE PERSONAL SPHERE -THREE CORE NEEDSUsing the metaphor of an apple as a memory aid the core of the personal sphere isrepresented by three core needs - identity, stimulation and security (Figure 2). Theoriginator Ardrey, (1967) posed them in a hierarchy with Identity at the top in a waysimilar to Maslow's need hierarchy (Maslow,1970). Ardrey also suggested an oppositestate for each which helps to clarify the meaning. Identity is opposed by anonymity,stimulation by boredom, and security by anxiety (Ardrey,.1967:189)

Personal sphere

Transactional sphere

Environmental sphere

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Figure 2 Personal sphere -Three Core NeedsIdentityThe significance of the concept of identity, the view of self held by oneself and/ or byothers is supported by a great deal of historical and contemporary work. In theirexplanation of self concept development, Coleman and Hendry (1990:45-82), refer tosocial background, sex role identity, self-esteem, identity crisis, attribution theory, selfagency and locus of control. Problems related to identity are considered under thesignificance of employment and self, and delinquency and self, ethnic minority statusand identity, drugs and self. Kroger (1995) explores similar themes in some depth.Media impact and culture are frequently encountered aspects of contemporary interestin body image and related concerns with eating disorders and body building includingsteroid use.A practical application has been demonstrated by the inclusion of a life dimension ofidentity in the assessment and action records of the "looking after children" approachto assessment, case planning and review which Victoria and a number of other Statesand agencies are in the process of adopting. This approach was developed in theUnited Kingdom and is based on substantial practice Research (Ward, 1995; Clarkand Burke, 1998; Wise, 1998). Briefly defined as the individual's beliefs about who orwhat they are, the dimension of identity rests on one's origins in family, culture andethnicity and the narrative of life to date (Tizard, 1996: 35-39). Closely related for theyoung person in care, are dimensions of life skills development and self presentation.

StimulationStimulation through our visual, auditory, olfactory, taste and tactile apparatus and thecues we get from position and movement throw in the spurs and barriers of ourmotivation and personal development. Evidence is mounting about the importance ofstimulation and opportunity in the early years. Longitudinal studies are providingoutcome data, the classic instance of the High/Scope Pre school and the ElmiraPrenatal Early Infancy Project in the United States (Greenwood 1999) and veryrecent work on brain and behaviour gives it an extra edge (McCain and Mustard,1999).Clearly the things and people that turn you on and turn you off can make a bigdifference to life space and life course. Escaping the lows and looking for the peakexperiences provides energy for skill development and the push and pull along our

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pathway.Recent work on the investigation and treatment of sex offending seeks to addresspatterns of arousal which can hook us at an early age into a problematic pathways anda troublesome lifestyle (Briggs, 1994). Hopefully developing youth will find enoughreasonably safe and pro social opportunities for satisfying levels of stimulation. Theconsequences of normal risk taking urges can be extreme if the means chosen toexpress them is extreme (Garbarino, 1995).

SecurityThe concept of security again parallels Maslow's (1970) underpinning level ofsecurity needs. Being fed and sheltered and feeling safe. An excess of anxiety canparalyse our ability to act on opportunity. Some youth stumble in the process ofrunning away from the perceived cause of their fear.Recent work with children from war torn countries point to the lasting effect oftrauma (Chung, 2000). Locally recognition has emerged that a frequent factor in thelives of abused children who become "high risk" adolescents is post traumatic stress(Morton, Clark and Pead 1999).Security in relationships appears also related to ideas of attachment. Attachmenttheory appears to be enjoying a revival in programs for troubled youth (Moore et al1998).

THE PERSONAL SPHERE - FOUR ASPECTS OF THE PERSONCutting the apple up is a precursor to creating apple pies, the amalgam of physical,intellectual, emotional and social aspects of the person (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Personal sphere - Four Aspects of the Person – mnemonic apple PIES

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The physical personThe body we are born with and the way it develops over time is likely to impact onour self perception and the view others have of us. Disability or minority statusmight have set us apart from the main stream, constraining acceptance andopportunity. Illness may present a challenge while health, strength and attractivephysique may produce advantages. There may be chemical or physical solutions toour problem provided the cure is not worse than the complaint.An attempt in the seventies to get health related research funding to study thesignificance of the body image to young people in trouble failed because it was notconsidered to be sufficiently related to health. It is unlikely to be questioned in 2000as we grapple with the consequences of eating disorders, body obsessions, addictionsand sedentary lifestyles.

The intellectual personWhat we know clearly makes a difference and ability to learn clearly makes adifference to life style and life course. These things affect our capacity to negotiateour way into or out of trouble. There is a growing body of knowledge concerningthe needs of people with intellectual disabilities, acquired a brain injury and thosewho are intellectually gifted. The information society and communication culturethrows up many advantages and disadvantages around literacy, numeracy andtechnological competence.Recent work points to the additional challenges faced by the adolescent with anintellectual disability and the family (Marshak et al 1999). Schools are crucialinstitutions on the developmental path and key contributors to risk and resilience(National Crime Prevention, 1999). Failure to address the particular learning needs ofbrighter children may not only waste potential but contribute to unhappy anddestructive psychosocial outcomes (Frydenberg, 1997: 186; Porter 1999).

The emotional personBeing human allows for the experience of a range of emotional states from extremesof love, passion, hate, anger, grief and despair to subtle senses a of tenderness,warmth, mirth, irritation, distaste and many others. Recent years have brought thestudy of emotions beyond the province of the humanities, art and poetry toward amore scientific appreciation. Some interest follows our cultural penchant for moodaltering drugs.New understanding emerges from neurophysiology and biochemistry. Temperamentis the focus of one of the few Australian longitudinal studies. Following a cohort of1380 Victorian children born in 1983 Sanson suggests "a child's ability to learn howto calm down when feeling upset was crucial in helping to protect them from drugtaking or other delinquent behaviour" (Sanson 2000). Thinking, feeling and acting arenow regarded as intertwined elements of our action, reaction and progress. Among thestudies of emotion which see it as a combination of appraisal and arousal, Handlerregards the appraisal as the cold component and arousal as the heat (Ortony et al,1990:6)

The social person

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Communicating and relating are social skills. The long human passage throughdependency to adulthood makes social behaviour mandatory as has the sexual basis ofprocreation in the past. Artificial insemination may be changing the latter in 2000 butdependency has been transformed into a state which Bessant (1993:3) terms"dependultcy". For most there is a major measure of interdependence throughout ourlifespan with family, friends and community - our "social network" or networks(Tracey and Whittaker, 1990). There may be a number within which we operate out ofinterest or necessity. Much recent work points to the risk potential in social isolation(Vinson and Baldry 1999; Tomison and Wise 1999) and one line of enquiry aroundquality of life looks at our sense of being, our sense of belonging and our sense ofbecoming (Centre for Health Promotion, 1999).

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERE

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Figure 4 The Environmental Sphere

Figure 4 The Environmental Sphere

1.BIO-PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT RESOURCES AND CONSTRAINTS

Gender

ChemicallyDependent Relationships

Religious,

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The environmental sphere has three systemic rings which make up the surroundinglife space. The outermost ring represents the ultimate constraint of the biophysicalenvironment. We are contained and channeled by our physical surroundings andalthough in this era we often have someone up in space, it still costs a lot to get there.We are dependent on the physical environment for the means of survival - air, waterand food.See below additions shown in the text boxes in the figure above, to this version of the model

2.THE ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERE - BIO-PSYCHO-SOCIO-CULTURAL INFLUENCESNext we move to a sphere of bio-psycho-socio-cultural influences. Many have agenetic or physical base but their significance rests in the social and culturalmeanings we and others give them. The meanings however translate often intolocation, resources and status which may determine opportunities and pathways.Often they become institutions, other forms of collective entity or organisations. Theoriginal chosen conceptual group contained economic influences, ideological andpolitical influences, social class and subcultural influences and ethnic and culturalinfluences. In the intervening years strides have been taken in the appreciation of sexand gender. The socio-cultural construct of gender has been exposed as an influenceand force with much moment and although the thrust in Australia has been to reduceinequalities, its importance warrants inclusion as a dimension of this type. Betweenthem this group of influences confer positions of advantage and disadvantage on usand those we relate to. In this revision of ideas the need has grown to add religiousinfluences to the ideological and political focus. At a global and local level religioncontinues as a rallying element for many and tragically for many a justification fordivision and conflict.

Gender, Ethnic and Cultural InfluencesWith genetic and hormonal influences included, many aspects of life are effected byour identification as male or female. In addition sexual preference in attraction andpartnership has in recent decades moved from proscription as deviance to protectionin anti-discrimination codes, at least in the secular society. There are many instancesin which self perception of gender status and the perception of others will make adifference to opportunity and how we are treated. For ethnicity, again there is a genetic origin which may confer visible characteristics and possibly some less visible. The gene pool which in 2000 can now been seen in greater detail carries variations on many human traits. To these are added the learning and meanings taught to the growing child in a particular cultural context. By no means fixed, it contains a wide variety of interesting elements for comparison across language, heritage, beliefs and rewarded or punished patterns of thinking, feeling or acting. A multi cultural community such as Australia provides a fertile field in which to grow our understanding of this powerful source of variety and potential source of misunderstanding and conflict.

Religious, Ideological and Political Influences

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It is unlikely that we are born with a particular religious or political disposition, butusually we are born into one to start with. There has been speculation about whetherwe are born with a God Spot, a need to believe in some form of explanation for theunknown. Our position however with a minority, dominant or mainstream socialinstitution based on belief, tradition and again rewarded or punished forms ofthinking, feeling or acting will influence many aspects of our life space, life style andlife course.

Social Status and Subcultural InfluencesSocial Class, Caste and other social groups which confer privilege and contain anothersource of collective power cannot be ignored as sources of influence on the climate ofthought, feeling and action in which we operate. Very much an issue in understandingthe role of ruling elites and sources of oppression and conflict. Examples range fromthe class system of English and other European aristocracies, through dominance ofethnic or tribal groups to membership of some cults or gangs. Essentially howeverthey contain power in one of its forms and will often seek to extend or protect theprivilege of members.

Economic InfluencesWealth and poverty remain a major source of influence over life chances. With theglobalisation of market economies and the diminution of locally contained marketeconomies, well functioning subsistence economies (including the idea of subsistenceaffluence), and the capacity of households or communities to be self sufficient inproviding for their lifestyle and aspirations, extremes of economic advantage anddisadvantage are very evident in the world of 2000. Wealth and its distribution has amarked effect on many aspects of life space, life style and life course. Work andwelfare are significant components in the contemporary contests of policy goals andmeans (Dalton et al, 1996; Graycar and Jamrozik, 1993; Saunders, 1997).

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SPHERE - THE SPHERE OF PROXIMAL RELATIONSHIPS.The power of the social environment reaches us through contact with people throughinteractions and relationships. The study and mapping of social networks has been ofgrowing interest (Cotterell, 1996; Tracey and Whittaker, 1990; Gilligan, 1999). In themodel this sphere seeks to classify relationships into groups which have particularmeaning and important forms of influence. To the original four in earlier work, (kinrelationships, relationships with significant others including peers, technologicalrelationships, organisational and institutional relationships), one has been added forthe year 2000. In association with an ongoing interest in young people in trouble, thepower of our substance using culture overall and the impact of dependency on our lifestyle and life course and our relationship with others in our life space, it appears towarrant a focus of its own (Owen and Davis, 1998).

Kin RelationshipsAre those to whom we connect through blood and legal ties. From birth they usuallyrepresent our closest and most intense human contact. They are likely to remain

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important sources of support, power and influence through our life course. Familyconnectedness is a prominent resilience factor. Kin is used in preference to family asit leads to a wider view of potential connections. Work on attachment and bondingcontinues to attract interest both in terms of the effects of early childhood experienceon later adult relationships and in the extent to which bonds can be established in laterlife, particularly as a part of program strategy (Moore et al, 1998).

Relationships with Significant Others including PeersIntimate significant others may be highly influential, some may become kin. Theinfluence of non kin significant others includes friends and anyone with whom aconnection is valued. Significant others may include also mentors, models and heroeswith whom a person identifies or seeks to emulate. The young person will oftenbehave in ways designed to impress peers or to conform to peer expectations. Inaddition to longstanding interest in developing positive and avoiding negative peercultures, the idea of peer mentors, peer educators and peer mediators have all beenencountered in recently developed programs for offenders and young people at risk(Owen and Lunken 1999).

Technological RelationshipsTechnological relationships are those made possible or facilitated using technologicalmeans. The technology employed ranges from print in books, magazines etc toelectronic media, computers, telephones etc. Of significance, is that such relationshipsmay transcend distance and time. We might adopt Shakespeare or Machiavelli asheroes to emulate and now we can be in instant communication with people on theother side of the world, if we have access to the technology. Many of theserelationships are one way and may be seeking to persuade us to value a product or apoint of view. Some elements of the persuasion may be masked and manipulative.The impact and significance of such relationships is a major contemporary concernand matter for ongoing debate about specifics such as violence on television, internetsoliciting etc. In our labour migration project the fortunes and feelings of womenmigrant workers and their families was affected by their access to affordable means ofcommunicating with their families at home (Owen and Picton, 1996).

Chemically Dependent RelationshipsThis new inclusion reflects the potential of drug or alcohol induced effects tooverride abilities and inhibitions to the point where substance abusers may be unableto fulfil obligations as employees, friends or family members. Consultancy withparents with addictions who were also trying to cater for the needs of their children,provided the author with evidence of the nightmare this can become (Owen andDavis, 1998). The abuse of parents and other family members by teenage and adultchildren with addictions is emerging also as an issue for 2000. Similarly the neglect ofchildren by parents with addiction is an issue. The high rate of overdose deaths islinked to contested policy issues. It is given the status of relationship as attachment tothe chemical and its effects may damage, neutralise (or enhance) the influence ofother relationships.

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Organisational and Institutional RelationshipsThese relationships draw their existence from their presence for institutional ororganisational reasons. They may stem from institutions like religion or the law. Mostoften their expression is through organisationally arranged roles eg. teacher,employer, police officer, magistrate, probation officer, club leader. The nature andprocesses connected to role may be prescribed or constrained in particular ways.Trotter's research pointed to the importance of frequent role clarification efforts whichwork with involuntary clients entails (Trotter, 1999). Relationships with police havebeen an issue for many young people (White, R, and Alder, C., 1994) and the highcumulative arrest rate, especially for young aboriginal men may have high life courseimpact (Harding and Maller, 1997:360).

THE TRANSACTIONAL SPHERE (Figure 5)This sphere represents the dealing, the likely impact of associations and thereciprocities occurring between the person and those relationships present orpotentially present in the environment. Transaction was chosen as a descriptive termas it implies the passage or exchange of influence and power. Two systemic ringswere proposed, both carry the possibility of conscious action on the part of eitherparty in a relationship. The first set - (modes of interaction) refer to the stance the twoparties to an interaction or a relationship may adopt toward each other. The second set- (regulators of relationships), denotes a set of elements which may increase ordecrease the effects of interaction and the likelihood of a relationship developingfurther, being maintained or being terminated.

Modes of interaction

Regulators of Relationships

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TRANSACTIONAL SPHERE - MODES OF INTERACTIONIn this systemic ring of the model it is proposed that an approaching party to aninteraction will adopt one of the following stances. The other party will also by wayof reaction or deliberate response. Each may respond in ongoing interaction with thesame stance as the other or attempt to shift to another mode. Seven possible stancesare proposed in the model. They are coercive confrontation, coercive manipulation,stigmatisation, exchange, autonomous cooperation, avoidance/ withdrawal andrejection.

Coercive confrontationThis proposes an open conflictual stance. A response of the same kind ultimatelydemands a winner and loser unless another mode is adopted. It is clearly dangerousfor the less powerful.

Coercive manipulationLikely to be used in a situation where a party of less power or influence is trying tosucceed by bluff or trickery. If found out the loss of trust may be difficult to recoverand it may be irredeemable.

StigmatisationOccurs when one party seeks to convince the other party, or observers, that the subjectis not competent or may be sick, sad, mad or bad. It may have a basis in fact but itconveys stigma with consequences, roles and diminished responsibility andentitlements.

ExchangeThis represents the array of bargaining and negotiating behaviour which usuallyoccurs in a context of some rules and expectations or assurances of trust. Its use in themarket place makes it a common approach. It is often crucial to the constructiveresolution of conflict and a desirable goal when one is caught in one of the othernegative modes.

Autonomous cooperationMost commonly found between intimate partners, close friends, parents and childrenetc. It is where the needs of the other are perceived as being as important or moreimportant than one's own needs. It may include acting for mutual benefit or thebenefit of the other at one's own expense. Much may be achieved while therelationship remains positive. Breakdown may lead to bitterness and dangerousreactions.

Avoidance/ withdrawal

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Seeks to avoid the development or further development of the relationship. It may bethat the relationship carries negative connotations or that it is insufficiently rewarding.It may be a significant issue to deal with in work with involuntary clients (Borowski,1997: 360- 364).

Rejection.An active approach to preventing a relationship becoming established or terminating arelationship. Consequences can be severe when it occurs between parents andchildren, teachers and students etc.

TRANSACTIONAL SPHERE - REGULATORS OF RELATIONSHIPSThis systemic ring has four components and it is proposed that variations in each canaid the increase or decrease in the strength of a relationship and hence the likelihoodof the passage of influence within it. Two components concern time spent together ina situation where transactions can occur. The others concern characteristics of thesituation or events. They are frequency, duration, intensity and priority. Thesedimensions follow elements to be found in Sutherland’s Differential AssociationTheory (Sutherland and Cressy, 1978).

FrequencyFrequency relates to the number of contacts in a given period. A probation officermight require daily contact for a period while rapport, expectations and contracts arebeing established.

DurationSimilarly time might be used but in longer stretches. A camp involving a weekend ora few days away might serve to advance positive elements in the relationship or bringnegatives to the surface.

IntensityIntensity implies a degree of arousal as a consequence of the interaction or its context.Engaging in confrontation in a supportive environment, trust building activities orsituations involving risk and a measure of interdependence. Wilderness or outdoorexperiences such as abseiling, rock climbing or rafting might generate a degree ofbonding. It is suggested however that beneficial effects may be diminished if activesteps are not taken to carry the relationship or a connection with the experience intoeveryday life.

PriorityThe specific meaning attached to this term in this context is the connection betweenthe present situation and a past positive or negative relationship, person or eventwhich triggers an emotionally charged response. An example would be a probationofficer whose appearance, mannerisms or some characteristic is similar to a pastpositive or negative equivalent in the probationer's earlier life. Anecdotal evidence atleast suggests it and support for the idea follows from studies of attachment (Morettiet al 1994:34; Steele and Steele, 1994).

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THE MODEL AND OTHER CONTEMPORARY THEORYAND RESEARCH OF INTERESTRecent years has seen much development in longitudinal research, self report studies,comparative research, meta-analysis and the use of more powerful qualitative andquantitative research tools. The following considers some developments in the light ofour ideas of life space, life course and lifestyle.

LIFE SPACEThe model as a snapshot of a person in environmental context draws attention to anarray of influences, mediated by relationships, bearing on, but also differentiallyempowering the person for future action. The elements represent importantdimensions of life. Much work has been going on in recent years searching for keyvariables important for assessment and likely to influence future outcomes.Some schemas arise from work on causes and correlates of psychosocial problems,leading in turn to conceptions of variables as ‘risk’ and ‘protective’ or ‘resilience’ factors.Outcomes are various tables and lists of these factors. Resnick’s work from a followup of 30,000 young people points to protective factors for boys and for girls againstconditions described as acting out behaviours and quietly disturbed behaviours(Resnick, 1993). Substantial recent Australian work has been built on the approachdeveloped in Seattle USA by Catalano and others (Catalano and Hawkins, 1996). Onthe one hand it has been extended as part of the National Crime Prevention Strategy(National Crime Prevention 1999). On the other it is informing pilot work in Victoriawhere a survey of selected risk and protective factors has been undertaken with anarea focus. The report “Improving the Lives of Young Victorians will underpin a pilotof the “Communities that care” approach in selected local government areas(Department of Human Services, 2000).Attention is drawn to the dimensions which emerged first as the Looking AfterChildren (LAC) approach to assessment, case planning and review for children in outof home care. It is now a component of an additional approach developed in the UKchildren in need at home and in the community. The LAC dimensions are health,education, family and social support, emotional and behavioural development,identity, self presentation and self care skills (Ward, 1995). To these have been addedtwo additional sets of dimensions (Department of Health, 1999), one set concerningparenting capacity (basic care, ensuring safety, emotional warmth, stimulation,guidance and boundaries, stability) the other family and environmental factors (familyhistory and functioning, wider family, housing, employment income, family's socialintegration, community resources).Another strand of research in the life space sense likely to interest the reader is theseries of UK studies published under the series title “Living Away from Home:Studies in Residential Care. One of these publications “ Caring for children awayfrom home: Messages from research”, summarises the findings of 12 studiesincluding 4 which are mainly about children, 6 mainly about the units they were inand 2 which are mainly about management and training. The messages are fairlycomplex and a good read. They contain quite an array of recommendations aboutwhat to do and how. Suffice to say here that careful attention is needed about who

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stays where, for what purpose and for how long – within a context of a broaderservice system. Attention to culture and morale is perhaps the strongest imperativeand this is built by having realistic clear objectives, with a high level of congruenceamong managers and staff about their value. Some ideas and processes for buildingstructure and culture, grounded in an appreciation of the everyday concerns ofchildren, staff and internal and external managers is a major contribution (Archer,Hicks, Little and Mount, 1999).In summary the life space of a youth in care is not a simple matter, but carefulexploration is likely to yield many options, many possibilities to encourage in theeffort to find a way forward.

LIFE COURSEAs one snapshot merges with the next, the cumulative dynamic course of developmentemerges. The notion of developmental pathways is entrenched in research if notalways in practice. Product from longitudinal studies is informing much of thisthinking. Knowledge though is fairly well short of certainty in prediction. Humanagency and the potential to change seems possible though it might confound theresearchers.Studies in offending have yielded many interesting ideas about pathways rich forexploration in the large samples of the USA Causes and correlates studies (DenverYouth Survey, Pittsburgh Youth Study and the Rochester Youth Development Study)sponsored by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (Greenbaum,1994).As well, work in the UK and New Zealand provide quite strong evidence in support ofdiversionary strategies for the majority who brush with the law, but strong therapeuticintervention for a minority of persistent, serious offenders (Loeber and Farrington1998; Rutter, Giller and Hagell 1998). This oversimplifies a fairly rich story withmany potential illustrations.Coleman’s Focal theory poses that most negotiate adolescence positively because notall the problems happen at the one time (Coleman and Hendry 1990). Many whocause the most trouble start early and are on more than one problem pathway withversatility (Kelley et al 1997). Based on the Pittsburgh study overt offending, covertoffending and anti authority pathways combined in the life course of the persistentserious minority.Crucial decisions and supports can push pathways toward or away from normativedirections (Little, 1990; Gilligan,1999). Our team working on good practiceguidelines for early intervention in delinquency have been making use of Moffitt’s(1993) conception of adolescent limited offending and life style persistent offending.Another of our projects examined the situation of young people leaving care. Theevidence is quite clear of diminished life chances for many care leavers (Owen et al2000; Green and Jones 1999; Maunders et al 1999). Gilligan is currently exploring thenotion of nurturing a talent as a means of improving positive pathway chances(Gilligan, 2000). The Families and Schools Together Program builds resilience with afamily focus and mutual support (McDonald et al, 1997)In summary much can be done to nurture positive pathways, but for those in greatest

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difficulty strong intervention may be necessary. Recent work in Victoria suggest aneed for therapeutic responses for some. Severe disturbance on a background of abusewas seen to warrant intervention which addresses attachment concerns, post traumaticresidue from abuse with a multi-systemic approach (Morton, Clark and Pead, 1999).

LIFESTYLELifestyle is a reminder that traps along the pathway eg. Substance abuse, sexualexploitation, can lead to habituated patterns of behaviour and greater deviation ofpathways. It is also a reminder that the style of worker behaviour can make adifference. Particularly in the transactional sphere the model points to stances andpossibilities for accelerating outcomes.Again there is growing evidence that effort invested early, especially effort whichavoids or limits stigma and builds on strengths can improve outcomes for the longerterm (National Crime Prevention, 1999; Sanders et al, 2000). This is the placehowever to emphasise three lines of enquiry worth watching.The first is the idea of “coping” and in raising it, drawing attention to some localresearch which has come up with an adolescent coping scale. It has 18 sub scales butfor now it might suffice to say that they cluster into 3 styles of coping – problemfocused coping; coping by reference to others; and non productive coping(Frydenberg and Lewis 1998).These ideas can add to what one might do when building identity in the personalsphere – an extra word though before moving on. Coping is a bit like surviving. Thereare grounds for lifting our sites to thriving. There is risk in grading expectations toohigh or too low (Fuller 1998).The second idea concerning lifestyle draws attention to the great local research ofChris Trotter. He demonstrated significant reduction in offending rates with workersbeing trained to address particular aspects of their casework with correctional clients –in short these were related to frequent and careful role clarification; attention toreinforcing pro-social behaviour and not reinforcing anti social behaviour; modellingand teaching problem solving skills to enable the client to work on problems the clienthas defined. There are also issues to do with the relationship. But it seems that a goodrelationship without the rest might make things worse (Trotter, 1999).Finally lifestyle draws attention to research and theory around quality of life. Ourwork in the disability area has sharpened this interest. Following a local researcherBob Cummins one quickly appreciates that quality of life has subjective as well asobjective aspects (Cummins, 1993).As well, a research group from the University of Toronto have developed aninteresting framework germane to our model. In it quality of life breaks into 3dimensions each with sub-dimensions, but using an ecological term, I believe there isa “goodness of fit”. They areBeing – who we are and how we see ourselvesBelonging- how we connect to others as social beingsBecoming- what are we looking forward to? (Centre for Health Promotion,University of Toronto 1999).This reminds me of our core needs and what we do in the context of our relationships.

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CONCLUDING REMARKSI hope this does not come across as a facile attempt at being grand. I find the modeluseful to make sense of what I see and to help find a way forward. There may be atouch of altruistic - trying to remake the whole world. I think though it is an attemptto help us pick our way through with a small dose of optimism.Perspectives drawn from revisiting the model in the light of recent research andcontemporary discourse suggest ongoing relevance in the year 2000 and I believe,some value in the perspective for policy making, planning and practice. The modelgoes some way in the direction of elaborating the source of much potential socialsupport. These same sources, given their potential to exercise power, also account formuch of the formal and informal social controls influencing life course.Emphasis should be accorded to the place of relationships as vehicles for theexchange of influence and power, noting that the exchange usually occurs intransactions where the parties have some control over the form of theirparticipation. An underlying aim seeks to provide opportunity for all to achieve apositive identity and sense of identity and positive quality of life. The enabling web ofsocial relationships may be richer if imbued with authenticity and integrity. In short,as a result of the nature and consequences of interpersonal transactions, a climate inwhich trust can develop and be sustained. Such a climate is being explored in recentwork which draws on the concept of social capital. It is suggested that social capital"originates in socially structured relations between individuals, in families and inaggregations of individuals in neighborhoods, churches, schools, and so on. Theserelations facilitate social action by generating a knowledge and sense of obligations,expectations, trustworthiness, information channels, norms, and sanctions" (Haganand McCarthy 1998 :229).Features driving us toward such exploration may be both altruistic and pragmatic aswe grapple with challenge and change in the new millenium. There is no doubthowever that the need to understand better the human condition and to find leveragefor dealing with problematic aspects of it are as acute as ever. Let me finish with the words of some young people recorded in “Messages from research” for I was taught that to start where the client is, is a fundamental tenet in social work.

NO ONE SHOULD TOLERATE BULLYING – STAFF YOUNG PEOPLE ORMANAGERS.EDUCATION IS NOT JUST FOR FIVE YEARS; IT AFFECTS YOUR WHOLELIFE.HAVE HIGHER EXPECTATIONS OF US.LISTEN TO US, EMPOWER AND VALUE US.REDUCE THE NUMBER OF STAFF CHANGES.LEAVING CARE CAN BE LIKE A BEREAVEMENT.STOP MOANING, FOCUS ON THE POSITIVE – MOVE FORWARD. (Archer et al1998:102-103)

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