Accessibility Challenges to Science Education in Cambodia

World Conference on Science and Technology Education, September 29 – October 3, 2013

Objectives

• Framework to analyze accessibility challenges for disabled learners in developing countries

• Exploration from perspective of science teacher education in Cambodia

Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

75 % of teachers

96 % of university students

67 % of all primary and secondary school pupils

…were killed/starved when the Khmer Rouge was in power.

Long-term Impact on the Education System and Human & Social Capital in Cambodia

Cambodia: the legacy of Pol Pot

71.2% of children aged 12-14 are not enrolled in secondary schools

Education Indicator Year CambodiaNet enrollment primary education (%) 2011 98Gross enrollment primary education (%) 2011 126Completion rate primary education (%) 2011 90Progression to secondary school (%) 2010 80Overaged primary school attendance (%) 2010 42% population 15-24 not complete primary edu. (%) 2010 32Pupil-teacher ratio, primary 2010 48Pupil-teacher ratio, secondary 2007 29

Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24) 2009 87

Education Indicators

• EFA Development Index 2010 (N = 127)

Source: UNESCO 2012

Cambodia: Quality of Education

EDI Component Value Ranking

1. UPE 0.957 59

2. Literacy 0.739 94

3. Gender 0.883 97

4. Quality 0.621 111

Overall EDI 0.801 100

Significance

• Worldwide disability prevalence: ca. 15% (UN-ESCAP, 2012)

• Higher prevalence in developing countries– Higher vulnerability (nutrition, medical care)– Armed conflicts

• Cambodia– Official prevalence: 6.3% (2009)– Ratification & Implementation UNCRPD

(2012-2013)– Incheon strategy (ASEAN)

Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

Theoretical Framework

Theory of Institutional Change (North, 1994; Konur, 2002)

Formal Rules Informal Constraints

Enforcement Characteristics

Alignment

Formal Rules

• Legislation, guidelines, standards• Can be changed quickly, but…

– Path dependency• Existing structures benefit from status quo• E.g. centralizing tendencies limiting initiatives at local level

– External factors• Regional integration• International education benchmarks

Informal Constraints

Norms of behaviour, conventions, self-imposed codes of conduct

– Disability as result of ‘bad karma’ (Mak Sau-Man, 2009) – Prejudice against education for disabled children (Stubbs, 2008)– Discourse based on ‘what they can’t do’ (Seale, 2013)– Interpretation of ‘reasonable’ adjustments (Konur, 2006)– Values and expectations (e.g. AT, ‘special’ treatments) (Seale, 2013)

Cultural Economic Social Technology

Informal Constraints

– Poor return on education investments (Banerjee & Duflo, 2011)– Limited employment opportunities & low social mobility (Mak Sau-Man,

2009)

– Informal payments (Benveniste et al., 2008)

Photo: The Cambodia Trust (CC)

Cultural Economic Social Technology

Informal Constraints

– Avoiding dependency, stigmatization & isolation (Seale, 2013)• Deal with uncomfortable relationship (e.g. jealousy)• Networks of formal and informal support networks

– Inclusive education is not just about schools

Cultural Economic Social Technology

Informal Constraints

– Limited resources, implementation challenges, conflicting priorities

– Sole focus on compliance with WCAG 2.0 unsuitable (Kelly et al., 2010)• Legacy software, lack of infrastructure• Awareness & diagnostics of learning difficulties (e.g. dyslexia)• Simple aids (e.g. glasses, audiobooks)• Learning materials (e.g large size posters, books in large

print)

Cultural Economic Social Technology

Enforcement Characteristics

• Weak enforcement characteristics– Awareness of standards and good practices– Focus on administrative compliance– Limited capacity of organisational structures representing

students and parents

Photo credit: UNICEF Cambodia

Working towards alignment

• Weak incentive & accountability structures– Low incentives to invest in skills and knowledge– High cost & few immediate benefits– Low accountability– Low empowerment– Reliance on informal networks

Misalignment Alignment

Working towards alignment

• Primacy of overcoming institutional blockages over resource shortages (North, 1994)– Awareness raising activities– Positive role models (staff and graduates with disabilities)– Information on rights and procedures– Data collection– Organisational capacity of disabled students, parents– Bridging capital between disabled and non-disabled students

Misalignment Alignment

Conclusions

• Importance of informal constraints & enforcement characteristics for generating change

• Need for wider, social vision on accessibility beyond compliance with guidelines such as WCAG 2.0

• Focus on removing institutional blockages by strengthening incentive & accountability structures

Photo credit:s UNICEF Cambodia

More Information

• Links– http://vvob.be/cambodia/– http://www.slideshare.net/StefaanVandeWalle/– http://www3.open.ac.uk/study/postgraduate/course/h810.htm

• Contact– @stefaanvw– Stefaan.vandewalle@vvob.be

• References– See paper

Photo credit: jbird