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Discourse AnalysisDiscourse Analysis
Introducing theory and method for Introducing theory and method for analysing content, conversation and analysing content, conversation and
meaningmeaningSue Bond-TaylorSue Bond-Taylor
Aims of the LectureAims of the Lecture
To introduce a range of theoretical perspectives To introduce a range of theoretical perspectives for analysing meaning in talk and text:for analysing meaning in talk and text:
1)1) Content analysis - quantitative & qualitativeContent analysis - quantitative & qualitative
2)2) Grounded Theory Grounded Theory
3)3) SemioticsSemiotics
4)4) Discourse analysisDiscourse analysis To illustrate these techniques with examples To illustrate these techniques with examples
from my own research : A discourse analysis of from my own research : A discourse analysis of Anti-Social Behaviour policy.Anti-Social Behaviour policy.
Content Analysis – Content Analysis – Quantitative MethodQuantitative Method
Involves identifying categories within a text Involves identifying categories within a text and and countingcounting the number of instances that the number of instances that fall into each category. fall into each category.
““Content analysis translates frequency of Content analysis translates frequency of occurrence of certain symbols into summary occurrence of certain symbols into summary judgements and comparisons of content of judgements and comparisons of content of the discourse” (Starosta 1984, cited in the discourse” (Starosta 1984, cited in Altheide, 1987:66) Altheide, 1987:66)
Hence, the greater the space and/or time Hence, the greater the space and/or time taken up by the category, the greater its taken up by the category, the greater its significance.significance.
Content Analysis- Content Analysis- Criticisms of Quantitative MethodCriticisms of Quantitative Method
Considers only data which can be standardised and Considers only data which can be standardised and placed into categories. placed into categories.
Tells us little about how representations are produced.Tells us little about how representations are produced. It therefore reproduces the meanings used by the author It therefore reproduces the meanings used by the author
rather than rather than critically evaluatingcritically evaluating those meanings within the those meanings within the context of their production.context of their production.
Audience may interpret the message differently from Audience may interpret the message differently from researcher / there may be a number of possible readings.researcher / there may be a number of possible readings.
““The frequency with which words or phrases occur in The frequency with which words or phrases occur in
a text (a quantitative emphasis) may therefore say a text (a quantitative emphasis) may therefore say nothing about its ‘significance within the document’ (a nothing about its ‘significance within the document’ (a qualitative emphasis).” (May, 2001:192)qualitative emphasis).” (May, 2001:192)
Content Analysis - Content Analysis - Qualitative / Ethnographic MethodQualitative / Ethnographic Method
Ethnographic content analysis is used to Ethnographic content analysis is used to ‘document and understand the ‘document and understand the communication of meaning, as well as to communication of meaning, as well as to verify theoretical relationships’ verify theoretical relationships’ (Altheide, (Altheide, 1987:68). 1987:68).
A more reflexive process. A more reflexive process. Initial categories might guide the study, but Initial categories might guide the study, but
further categories will emerge. further categories will emerge. The researcher is not limited by rigid research The researcher is not limited by rigid research
design created at the outset. design created at the outset.
Content Analysis in Practice: Content Analysis in Practice: Respect and Responsibility (2003)Respect and Responsibility (2003)
As a society, our rights as individuals are based on the sense of As a society, our rights as individuals are based on the sense of responsibility we have towards others and to our families and communities. responsibility we have towards others and to our families and communities. This means respecting each other’s property, respecting the streets and This means respecting each other’s property, respecting the streets and public places we share and respecting our neighbours’ right to live free from public places we share and respecting our neighbours’ right to live free from harassment and distress. It is the foundation of a civic society.harassment and distress. It is the foundation of a civic society.
This White Paper is all about this sense of responsibility: an acceptance that This White Paper is all about this sense of responsibility: an acceptance that anti-social behaviour, in whatever guise, is not acceptable and that together anti-social behaviour, in whatever guise, is not acceptable and that together we will take responsibility to stamp it out, whenever we come across it. This we will take responsibility to stamp it out, whenever we come across it. This responsibility starts in the family, where parents are accountable for the responsibility starts in the family, where parents are accountable for the actions of their children and set the standards they are to live by. It extends actions of their children and set the standards they are to live by. It extends to neighbours, who should not have to endure noise nuisance. It continues to neighbours, who should not have to endure noise nuisance. It continues into local communities, where people take pride in the appearance of into local communities, where people take pride in the appearance of estates and do not tolerate vandalism, litter or yobbish behaviour.estates and do not tolerate vandalism, litter or yobbish behaviour.
Our aim is a ‘something for something’ society where we treat one another Our aim is a ‘something for something’ society where we treat one another with respect and where we all share responsibility for taking a stand against with respect and where we all share responsibility for taking a stand against what is unacceptable.what is unacceptable.
Content Analysis in Practice: Content Analysis in Practice: Respect and Responsibility (2003)Respect and Responsibility (2003)
As a society, our As a society, our rightsrights as individuals are based on the sense of as individuals are based on the sense of responsibilityresponsibility we have towards others and to our families and we have towards others and to our families and communitiescommunities. . This means This means respectingrespecting each other’s property, each other’s property, respectingrespecting the streets and the streets and public places we share and public places we share and respectingrespecting our neighbours’ our neighbours’ rightright to live free from to live free from harassment and distress. It is the foundation of a civic society.harassment and distress. It is the foundation of a civic society.
This White Paper is all about this sense of This White Paper is all about this sense of responsibilityresponsibility: an acceptance that : an acceptance that anti-social behaviour, in whatever guise, is not acceptable and that together anti-social behaviour, in whatever guise, is not acceptable and that together we will take we will take responsibilityresponsibility to stamp it out, whenever we come across it. This to stamp it out, whenever we come across it. This responsibilityresponsibility starts in the family, where parents are accountable for the starts in the family, where parents are accountable for the actions of their children and set the standards they are to live by. It extends actions of their children and set the standards they are to live by. It extends to neighbours, who should not have to endure noise nuisance. It continues to neighbours, who should not have to endure noise nuisance. It continues into local into local communitiescommunities, where people take pride in the appearance of , where people take pride in the appearance of estates and do not tolerate vandalism, litter or yobbish behaviour.estates and do not tolerate vandalism, litter or yobbish behaviour.
Our aim is a ‘something for something’ society where we treat one another Our aim is a ‘something for something’ society where we treat one another with with respectrespect and where we all share and where we all share responsibilityresponsibility for taking a stand against for taking a stand against what is unacceptable.what is unacceptable.
Content Analysis in Practice: Content Analysis in Practice: Respect and Responsibility (2003)Respect and Responsibility (2003)
A quantitative content analysis identifies A quantitative content analysis identifies repetition of words:repetition of words:
Responsibility (5), Respect (4), Responsibility (5), Respect (4), Community (2), Rights (2)Community (2), Rights (2)
But tells us little about the meaning of But tells us little about the meaning of those words.those words.
We could assume that responsibility is We could assume that responsibility is more important than rights?more important than rights?
Ethnographic Content Analysis: Ethnographic Content Analysis: Predicate AnalysisPredicate Analysis
““focuses on the language practices of predication – focuses on the language practices of predication – the verbs, adverbs and adjectives that attach to the verbs, adverbs and adjectives that attach to nouns. Predications of a noun construct the thing(s) nouns. Predications of a noun construct the thing(s) named as a particular sort of thing, with particular named as a particular sort of thing, with particular features and capacities.” (Milliken 1999:232)features and capacities.” (Milliken 1999:232)
‘‘Communities’Communities’““Local…, …spiralling downwards, ASB ruins…, Local…, …spiralling downwards, ASB ruins…,
responsibility to…, families and…”responsibility to…, families and…”Can this give us an impression of how ‘community’ is Can this give us an impression of how ‘community’ is
defined within this discourse?defined within this discourse?
Ethnographic Content Analysis: Ethnographic Content Analysis: Grounded Theory MethodGrounded Theory Method
Highly theorised and widely used in social research.Highly theorised and widely used in social research. A process of constant comparison in which data A process of constant comparison in which data
collection, coding, analysis, interpretation and collection, coding, analysis, interpretation and literature review are continually and simultaneously literature review are continually and simultaneously undertaken. undertaken.
Initial themes may be identified at the outset in order Initial themes may be identified at the outset in order to shape the research design, but hypotheses will not to shape the research design, but hypotheses will not be in place and the research process is constantly be in place and the research process is constantly evolving. evolving.
By ‘grounding’ the theoretical evaluations in the data in By ‘grounding’ the theoretical evaluations in the data in this way, the qualitative researcher can avoid charges this way, the qualitative researcher can avoid charges of subjectivity and produce conclusions clearly of subjectivity and produce conclusions clearly supported by the data. supported by the data.
Grounded Theory in Practice: Grounded Theory in Practice: Respect and Responsibility (2003)Respect and Responsibility (2003)
A GT method encourages us to go through line by line to A GT method encourages us to go through line by line to identify themes or ‘tags’. We can compare tags and group identify themes or ‘tags’. We can compare tags and group them into categories, eg:them into categories, eg:
Balancing rights and responsibilitiesBalancing rights and responsibilities Respecting placesRespecting places Respecting others rightsRespecting others rights ResponsibilisationResponsibilisation Responsibilising familiesResponsibilising families Responsibilising communitiesResponsibilising communities
Through this analysis we can see that:Through this analysis we can see that: Rights are just as important as responsibilities because it Rights are just as important as responsibilities because it
is only through our responsibilities that we can demand is only through our responsibilities that we can demand rights.rights.
‘‘Community’ is perceived largely geographically, by Community’ is perceived largely geographically, by places and spaces.places and spaces.
SemioticsSemiotics
Semiotics offers an analysis of the use of Semiotics offers an analysis of the use of ‘signs’ within modes of representation. ‘signs’ within modes of representation.
Language is a set of signs which are quite Language is a set of signs which are quite arbitrarily assigned and are connected to the arbitrarily assigned and are connected to the objects which they represent only by the objects which they represent only by the shared understanding of cultures.shared understanding of cultures.
Because of this, such signs are subject to Because of this, such signs are subject to history and therefore shifts in meaning, history and therefore shifts in meaning, interpretations and understandings.interpretations and understandings.
There is thus no universal true meaning to There is thus no universal true meaning to any representation or text.any representation or text.
““Chair”Chair”
http://www.flickr.com/photos/epsos/6018530849/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/stewf/52793227/
““Chair”Chair”
http://www.flickr.com/photos/barbietron/3296163134/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/baltic-development-forum/5380626101/
http://www.flickr.com/photos/hiddedevries/5980995875/“ *~¬¬¬#^^ ”
SemioticsSemiotics
Roland Barthes (1967) developed this Roland Barthes (1967) developed this semiotic approach to the analysis of social semiotic approach to the analysis of social behaviour and popular culturebehaviour and popular culture
Everyday activities are a language through Everyday activities are a language through which meaning is communicated (ibid). which meaning is communicated (ibid).
Two levels of signification: denotation and Two levels of signification: denotation and connotation. connotation.
A symbol A symbol denotesdenotes on a descriptive level what on a descriptive level what is signified, but the is signified, but the connotation connotation draws upon draws upon wider ideological and cultural depictions.wider ideological and cultural depictions.
““Hoodie”Hoodie”
We might recognise a ‘hoodie’ on a descriptive We might recognise a ‘hoodie’ on a descriptive level, but this connotes further imagery in level, but this connotes further imagery in relation to youth, disorder and anti-social relation to youth, disorder and anti-social behaviour. This is the second level of behaviour. This is the second level of signification.signification.
http://www.flickr.com/photos/severalseconds/4440007946/sizes/o/in/
photostream/http://www.flickr.com/photos/sonialuna/2503576586/
http://www.freefoto.com/images/11/23/11_23_18---Broken-Window_web.jpg
So What is Discourse Analysis?So What is Discourse Analysis?
DA “emphasizes the way versions of the DA “emphasizes the way versions of the world, of society, events and inner world, of society, events and inner psychological worlds are produced in psychological worlds are produced in discourse” (Potter, 1997:146)discourse” (Potter, 1997:146)
Discourse as the ‘solution to a problem’ Discourse as the ‘solution to a problem’ (Gill, 1996, cited in Bryman: 2004). (Gill, 1996, cited in Bryman: 2004).
Need to search for the purpose behind the Need to search for the purpose behind the way things are represented in discourse.way things are represented in discourse.
Gill (2000)identifies 4 key themes in DA:Gill (2000)identifies 4 key themes in DA:
Theme 1: Theme 1: Discourse is a topicDiscourse is a topic
A focus of enquiry in itself.A focus of enquiry in itself. Contrasts with some forms of content Contrasts with some forms of content
analysis which see language only as a analysis which see language only as a means of accessing social reality. means of accessing social reality.
Researchers are interested in how Researchers are interested in how discourses are constructed and why.discourses are constructed and why.
Theme 2:Theme 2: Language is constructive Language is constructive
Discourse is a way of constructing a Discourse is a way of constructing a particular view of the social world.particular view of the social world.
It reflects the individual constructing that It reflects the individual constructing that view.view.
It reflects the context in which it is It reflects the context in which it is constructed.constructed.
We can use language devices to construct We can use language devices to construct ‘facts’.‘facts’.
Theme 3:Theme 3:Discourse is a form of actionDiscourse is a form of action
Discourse is a way of Discourse is a way of doingdoing something. something. Individuals construct different discursive Individuals construct different discursive
strategies or ‘repertoires’ about the same strategies or ‘repertoires’ about the same topic.topic.
E.g. you might construct different ways of E.g. you might construct different ways of talking about Uni life when talking to your talking about Uni life when talking to your mum, your mates, an employer.mum, your mates, an employer.
What are you trying to accomplish in each What are you trying to accomplish in each discourse?discourse?
Theme 4: Theme 4: Discourse is rhetorically organisedDiscourse is rhetorically organised
Discourse is concerned with “establishing Discourse is concerned with “establishing one version of the world in the face of one version of the world in the face of competing versions” (Gill, 2000:176).competing versions” (Gill, 2000:176).
Discourses are therefore actively Discourses are therefore actively constructed to persuade others to accept constructed to persuade others to accept that this version that this version isis social reality. social reality.
Think about how certain people are Think about how certain people are presented in discourses eg ‘youth’ ‘asylum presented in discourses eg ‘youth’ ‘asylum seekers’ ‘benefit cheats’ ‘rioters’ etc.seekers’ ‘benefit cheats’ ‘rioters’ etc.
Foucault on DiscoursesFoucault on Discourses
Foucault identifies the issue of power within Foucault identifies the issue of power within discourse:discourse:
• Power gives knowledge the authority of truth,Power gives knowledge the authority of truth,• Power allows that knowledge to make itself truePower allows that knowledge to make itself true
““There is no power relation without the There is no power relation without the
correlative constitution of a field of correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and constitute at the same time, presuppose and constitute at the same time, power relations.” (Foucault, 1977:27)power relations.” (Foucault, 1977:27)
A Foucauldian discourse analysis A Foucauldian discourse analysis should therefore identify:should therefore identify:
Statements about the topics being studied.Statements about the topics being studied. The rules which prescribe certain ways of talking about The rules which prescribe certain ways of talking about
these topics and exclude other ways, ie what is these topics and exclude other ways, ie what is ‘thinkable’ or ‘sayable’ about it.‘thinkable’ or ‘sayable’ about it.
‘‘Subjects’ who personify the discourseSubjects’ who personify the discourse How this knowledge about the topic acquires authority How this knowledge about the topic acquires authority
and becomes viewed as ‘truth’.and becomes viewed as ‘truth’. The practices within institutions for dealing with the The practices within institutions for dealing with the
subjects.subjects. Acknowledgement that in a later period a different Acknowledgement that in a later period a different
discourse will arise, opening up a new ‘discursive discourse will arise, opening up a new ‘discursive formation’ and supporting a new ‘regime of truth’. formation’ and supporting a new ‘regime of truth’.
(Hall, 1997:45-46)(Hall, 1997:45-46)
Discourse Analysis & ASB Discourse Analysis & ASB
An analysis of political discourse re anti-social behaviour An analysis of political discourse re anti-social behaviour thus requires not just a content analysis of the language thus requires not just a content analysis of the language within the texts, but a critique of the processes and within the texts, but a critique of the processes and practices which evolve out of, support or construct this practices which evolve out of, support or construct this discourse. discourse.
In what ways are policies addressing ASB not onlyIn what ways are policies addressing ASB not only
a.a. A response to the ‘knowledge’ represented by such A response to the ‘knowledge’ represented by such political documents?political documents?
But also...But also...
b.b. Reinforcing that ‘knowledge’ and therefore constructing Reinforcing that ‘knowledge’ and therefore constructing the problem itself?the problem itself?
Confused?Confused? This lecture has provided the theoretical This lecture has provided the theoretical
context of Discourse Analysis methods.context of Discourse Analysis methods. Next week’s lecture (JJ) will be exploring Next week’s lecture (JJ) will be exploring
how you can apply these theories to your how you can apply these theories to your DA assignment.DA assignment.
Analysing practitioner discourses, eg re Analysing practitioner discourses, eg re managerialism, public sector funding managerialism, public sector funding crisis, organisational cultures and values.crisis, organisational cultures and values.
Using real examples from past speakers.Using real examples from past speakers.
Don’t miss it!!Don’t miss it!!