ACTJVITJES

1. Create a hall of fame for the philosophes thatillustrates why they were important to the FrenchRevolution. Construct a panel out of cardboard or ,some stiff material to hold the display. You couldmake a photo collage that includes all thephilosophes and use display type around thecollage to discuss the contributions of each"thinker. Or you could display individual photos,with a brief description underneath.

2. Browse through some newspapers and magazinesin your school library. With a partner, collectclippings about trends, events, and attitudes thatwould appeal to Rousseau. Collect other clippingsthat show how the scientific method haspermanently altered our way of thinking. Paste yourclippings on poster paper, under appropriate titles.

XXZZ xzzxa

The Ri voi itiox Begums

republican government:a government in whichall power rests with thecitizens who vote to electtheir leaders

A CRISISAll the money spent by Louis XIV andhis successors came mostly fromtaxing and exploiting the lower andmiddle classes, not from profits madein new business. During the reign ofLouis XVI, France was almostbankrupt. The revolution was close athand.

Led by the philosophes, manyFrench people openly expressed theirdispleasure with the government—sometimes with riots. The royal courtsplit into two groups, one thatsupported the king and changes to theeconomy, and another that supportedMarie Antoinette and more power forthe nobles. The middle class, theworking class, and a few aristocratsdemanded some kind of democracy,much like the limited democracy thathad existed in England for almost acentury.

Many French officers and soldiershad taken part in the AmericanRevolution (France had helped theAmerican colonists fight againstBritain). The Americans weredemocratic in their views and hadmade a point of protecting thefreedoms of the individual, which

were outlined in the AmericanDeclaration of Independence (see page48 for excerpts). To the philosophesand their followers, France wasembarrassingly backward. Comparedto the absolute monarchy of France,the republican government ofAmerica—or even the constitutionalmonarchy of England—seemed muchmore advanced.

France's problems were madeworse by a series of famines and otherdisasters in the 1780s. Thousands ofFrench people were close tostarvation. Families, the most

important institution in society,broke up because parents could notprovide for their children. During thisperiod, more than 40 000 childrenwere abandoned each year.

Britain's Industrial Revolution—which you will read about in moredetail in Chapter 5—was also puttingFrench people out of work. For thefirst time, textiles could be madewith the assistance of machines andimported cheaply, so fewer handswere needed. Unemployment was oneof the government's most serious

problems. France's unemployedpeople were starving, and were veryunhappy, with nothing to lose. Theydemanded change, and they wanted it

72 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-18 This sketchdepicts the life of the verypoor before the revolution.This man is competing withseveral dogs for the carcassof an animal. List all theevidence in the sketch thatcommunicates how hard lifewas. Do think this picture isan exaggeration? Why orwhy not?

THE ESTATESGENERALWe will not leave except by force of the

bayonet!

-COUNT MIRABEAU, AT THE ESTATES GENERALFOR THE THIRD ESTATE

France had a kind of parliament known as the"Estates General," which met only as a resultof a royal command. The Estates General

soon. During the revolution, the Paris mob, asit was called, was violent and unpredictable. Itsupported some extreme measures thatresulted in the coming Reign of Terror.

Louis responded by allowing critics of thegovernment to be imprisoned or, occasionally,killed. When crowds rioted in Paris againstthe high price of bread, the king's troopsresponded by shooting several dozen people.The king's popularity fell even lower. Whenhe had begun his reign, people thought hecould save France. Now, he had no solutionsto offer. Even his supporters weredisappointed. Desperate for money and ideas,he called together the representatives of thepeople, the Estates General, to try to findsolutions to France's problems.

Figure 3-19 This cartoon means something if you know that Frencharistocrats paid few taxes and lived off wealth created by peasants andworkers. To people of the day, it needed no caption. How would thiscartoon be perceived by a French aristocrat in the eighteenth century?How do you think he or she would justify their lifestyle?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 73

74 CHAPTER 3

bloc: a groupincluded representatives from thethree estates (or social levels) ofFrance. The members of the FirstEstate were the clergy. Aristocratsformed the Second Estate. The middleclass made up the Third Estate.

The Estates General met veryseldom—in fact, their last meetinghad been held in 1614! Although theThird Estate had twice as manydelegates as either of the other twoestates, each estate voted as a bloc.

This meant that the privilegedclasses, the aristocrats, and the clergy,had twice as much voting power asthe middle class.

Louis XVI called the EstatesGeneral together only when hisgovernment was in a serious crisis.

His controller general of finances, A.R. Turgot, had tried to reform theeconomy but had been forced out ofoffice by Marie Antoinette. Now thecountry was bankrupt. Louis orderedthe Estates General to meet atVersailles in 1789. He and his newdirector of the treasury, JacquesNecker, hoped that this meeting

would help raise money and put anend to widespread rioting.

Louis realized that therepresentatives gathered would wantsome say in government. However, he

was not prepared to surrender hisabsolute power to the people. Instead,he planned to give the Estates somesmall, token responsibilities, such asallowing them a say in fixing the taxsystem. But when the Estates Generalfinally met in May, its members wouldnot bow to the king's wishes. Despitesome internal conflicts, there was stillgreat hope that progress would bemade toward democracy in France.

Figure 3-20 Why has theartist paid so much attentionto the surroundings in thisdrawing of Tennis CourtOath? Why do you think thedelegates are so small by

THE SPIRIT OFREVOLUTIONGROWSOrdinary people in France sensed thatgreat things were happening andquickly caught the revolutionaryspirit. Thousands crowded the town

of Versailles, anxious tolearn the latest newsand anxious, too, for

democracy. Peopleknew that history wasbeing made. They hadgreat expectations of thedelegates who weremeeting to decide thefate of France.

After six weeks oflittle progress, the ThirdEstate broke with theother Estates. Led byCount Mirabeau, abrilliant speaker andleader, its membersdeclared that theywould form a newgovernment known as

the National Assembly.Their real goal was anew constitution forFrance. Delegates

retreated to the Royal Tennis Courts,angry after the king tried to lock upthe site of their meeting. Here theytook the the Tennis Court Oath, apledge that they would continuemeeting until France had a new formof government. Louis responded withsome democratic reforms, but hisoffer was rejected. He was forced toback down and order the other twoestates to join the NationalAssembly.

Joyful crowds filled the streets ofVersailles and Paris. It seemed certainthat the French Revolution had beena success.

DID YOU KNOW?In honour of the FrenchRevolution, the NationalGuard and the people worered, white, and bluecockades and sashes. Later,when Louis visited Paris andmet with its new mayor, hetoo wore a revolutionarycockade. He was greetedwith cheers of Vive le Roi"Long Live the King").

THE FALL OF THEBASTILLEThe calm did not last long. Moreriots, over the high price of bread,broke out in Paris and other cities.The mob began attacking the city'sprisons in a bid to free politicalprisoners. The revolution was quicklygoing beyond the control of itsoriginal leaders and taking on a life ofits own. Louis responded by sending

foreign mercenary troops to Paris andVersailles. People assumed that theking would use the soldiers againstthe revolution and began to armthemselves.

On July 14, 1789, a great mobattacked the royal prison and fortressknown as "the Bastille." Troops sentto disperse the mob joined it instead,and the Bastille was soon captured.There were only seven prisoners inthe Bastille, but they were allreleased. The mob cut off thegovernor's head and paraded itthrough the streets.

The fall of the Bastille frightenedLouis. He agreed to send his mercenarysoldiers away. Citizens, determined tokeep order in Paris, formed a new armycalled the "National Guard," whichwas commanded by the Marquis deLafayette, a hero of the AmericanRevolution.

Figure 3-22 Many North Americans of Frenchheritage also celebrate democracy on July 14—Bastille Day. Bastille Day commemorates the fallof the Bastille prison, and the official beginningof the French Revolution. Festivities includefireworks, concerts, parties, cultural events, andmilitary displays.

Figure 3-21 The Bastillerepresented the power of theking and was suspected ofholding many politicalprisoners. It was attackedand destroyed, with the helpof rebel French soldiers. Whydo you think the people ofParis destroyed the Bastillewhen the revolution seemedto be going so well?

mercenary: a paid soldier

cockade: an ornamentworn on top of a hat

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 75

THE CREAT FEAR PARIS AND THEKINGOn August 4, 1789, the NationalAssembly met in Versailles. In onestroke, it abolished all feudal rightsand privileges and ended serfdom.Next, it declared all people equal

before the law.These changes were

extraordinary. Much had beenaccomplished in a short time, butpeople began to feel that the king andthe assembly might be out of touchwith conditions in the cities. Theyfelt that the government needed tocome to Paris, and not be isolated inVersailles. Nor could the assemblysolve the continuing food crisis, feltmost acutely by women and children.

In October, crowds of womenmeeting in Paris decided to march toVersailles to meet the king, a distanceof approximately 50 kilometres. Asthey marched, the women were joinedby hundreds of others and followed, ata distance, by Lafayette and theNational Guard. In Versailles, thewomen—covered in mud from their

walk—attacked the NationalAssembly and stormed the palace.Reluctantly, the queen and kingappeared and agreed to go back to Paris.

DECLARATION OFTHE RIGHTS OFMAN ANDTHECITIZENLater in August, the Declaration ofthe Rights of Man and the Citizenwas passed by the NationalAssembly, which now met in Paris.This document, like the AmericanDeclaration of Independence, sets outbasic human rights that governmentsmay not overlook. It contains ideas

chateaux: the mansionsand great estates of therich

Figure 3-23 Study this mapfor a few moments, thenreview Figures 3-2 and 3-4on pages 57 and 58. Suggestsome reasons why peasantsliving in Normandy, Brittany,and Flanders might not havebeen supporters of therevolution.

Although the revolution had occurredmostly in Paris and Versailles,revolutionary feelings spread quickly.In the countryside, peasants wereaware that enormous changes were

taking place, but they were alsofearful. They believed that the king'ssoldiers and the aristocrats wouldstop the revolution. These feelingsresulted in a panic called the "GreatFear," which spread rapidly throughparts of rural France. Peasants

stormed the chateaux of thearistocrats, burned them to theground, and killed hundreds of people.They invaded offices and burnedfeudal certificates and papers thatrecorded their obligations to the lords.

The Great Fear spread throughlarge areas of France (see Figure 3-23),but did not really affect isolatedNormandy or Brittany, the peninsulasto the south of the English Channel.Nor did it affect the lowlands ofFlanders. Many people from theseregions did not support the revolution.Look back at Figures 3-2 and 3-3 (on

pages 57 and 58) and suggest somereasons why this was the case.

SPAIN

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

p—I Area of the Great Fear revolts.1 1 July 1789

A Counterrevolutionary centre,1792-1793

Antirevolutionary forces

Prorevolutionary forces

(ot Area of the Vendee uprising,tka 1793— French frontier, 1793

ATLANTICOCEAN

¦ ,, tv

0 150 300 km

76 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-24 There are many paintings and drawings of the march to Versailles, but this is one of themost famous. What might the woman in the gold dress be thinking? What about the woman who istugging her arm?

taken from English philosopher JohnLocke and the philosophes youlearned about in this chapter—Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.

The declaration guaranteed freedomof thought, speech, religion, security,and property, and it put limits on thepower of the government.

Once in Paris, the NationalAssembly worked quickly to establisha new constitution. Most of the oldsystem was swept away, and all nobletitles were declared obsolete.Everyone was given the title"citizen." The government seized

control of the Church and itsproperty. Certificates of money,called assignats, were issued, to beredeemed when Church lands weresold. The new government believed itwas well on its way to solving thecountry's financial problems.

In the meantime, Louis hadnoticed that many aristocrats weredeparting for other countries, such asEngland and Switzerland. These

emigres were working outside Franceto restore the old system. In 1791, thequeen and king and their childrentried to escape from the country indisguise. Louis's motive was to obtainforeign aid in order to restore hismonarchy. This was the worst thinghe could do. It proved that themonarchy would not support thedemocratic changes that had occurred,and that they could not be trusted.

The royal family was recognizedat Varennes, arrested, and imprisoned.

Louis was forced to accept France'snew constitution.

The newly formed LegislativeAssembly convened for the first timeon October 1, 1791. It tried toestablish a workable government, butit was doomed to failure; too manygroups were struggling for power.Radicals wanted a republic,-moderates wanted a constitutionalmonarchy,- and monarchists wanted

to restore most of the king's powers.Could the revolution ever survive?

DID YOU KNOW?In documents such as theFrench Declaration of theRights of Man and theCitizen and the AmericanDeclaration of Independence,the word "man" meanseverybody, regardless of sex.

constitution: a documentthat sets out the majorlaws and principles of agovernment

emigres: people who leaveone country for another

radical: someone whowants major changequickly

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 77

A French Reelaration and a Canadian Charter

Here are excerpts from two documents written 200years apart: the French Declaration of the Rightsof Man and the Citizen, and The Canadian Charter ofRights and Freedoms, enshrined in the Canadianconstitution in 1982. How are they similar? How arethey different?

The Declaration of theRights of Man and theCitizenThe representatives of the Frenchpeople, constituted as a National Assembly,considering that ignorance, forgetfulness, orcontempt for the rights of man are the solecauses of public misery and the corruptionof governments, have resolved to set forth ina solemn declaration the natural,inalienable, and sacred rights of man ....Article 1 Men are born and remain free and

equal in rights ...Article 4 Liberty consists of the freedom todo all that does not injure others ... limits

can only be determined by law.Article 7 No man can be accused, arrested,

or detained except in cases determined bylaw ...

Article 9 Every man is presumed innocentuntil he is declared guilty ...Article 10 No one should be disturbedbecause of his opinions, even in religion,provided their manifestation does not disturbpublic order as established by law.

DID YOU KNOW?Today, we use the terms"right," "left," and "centre"to describe the views ofpoliticians and other people.These terms are a heritage ofthe French Revolution. Atthat time, delegates to theFrench National Assemblytook seats to the right or leftof the speaker's podium,

depending on their politicalideas. Those on the rightwanted to keep the king andhave a strong monarchy. Thecentre wanted aconstitutional monarchy.Those on the left wanted arepublic; some even wantedthe death of the king.

Excerpts from the CanadianCharter of Rights andFreedomsWhereas Canada is founded uponprinciples that recognize the supremacy ofGod and the rule of law;

1. The Canadian Charter of Rights andFreedoms guarantees the rights andfreedoms set out in it subject only tosuch reasonable limits prescribed bylaw as can be demonstrably justified ina free and democratic society

2. Everyone has the followingfundamental freedoms:a) freedom of conscience and religion;b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion

and expression, including freedom ofthe press and other media ofcommunication;

c) freedom of peaceful assembly; andd) freedom of association.

3. Every citizen of Canada has the right tovote in an election of members of theHouse of Commons or a legislativeassembly and to be qualified formembership therein.

6. Every citizen of Canada has the right toenter, remain in, and leave Canada.

7. Everyone has the right to life, liberty,and security of the person and the rightnot to be deprived thereof except inaccordance with the principles offundamental justice.

9. Everyone has the right not to bearbitrarily detained or imprisoned.

12. Everyone has the right not to besubjected to any cruel or unusualpunishment.

inalienable: something that cannot be taken away ortransferred

78 CHAPTER 3

Figure 3-25 Diagram of the French National Assembly

ACTIVITIES

1. Imagine you are a delegate to the Estates General.Write a statement explaining why you, as arepresentative of one of the Estates, will or will notcooperate with the king?

2. Women played important roles in the years leadingup to the revolution. Using three headings—Leadership, Action, and Lasting Impact—itemizethe accomplishments of individuals or groups ofwomen.

3. Compare the Declaration of the Rights of Man andthe Citizen with the English Bill of Rights (see page47). Are they similar? In what ways?

4. With a partner, create a role play that explains thereasons behind the March on Versailles or the

Great Fear. First, write some dialogue for peoplewho have opposing views of these events. Youcould start by creating some dialogue between thetwo women noted in the caption of Figure 3-24.Flow do you know that the woman in the golddress is reluctant?

5. Canvass your teachers or parents and find outwhich modern politicians and political partieswould be called left-wing, centre, or right-wing.List some of these.

6. Like left-wing parties in revolutionary France, thosein Canada want social change. What changes dothey want? What are the main goals of right-wingparties?

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 79

A Ri volitiov Devours itsOwv Children

In its final stages, the French

Revolution seemed to turn on itsleaders. A split occurred betweenmoderates and radicals, and

leaders who wanted less than a fullrevolutionary republic fell undersuspicion. They were arrested andexecuted as the revolution entered anew and violent phase.

THE POLITICALCLUBSDemocracy was new to France and

many traditions had yet to beestablished. There were no politicalparties, for example. Instead, peoplejoined a political club to be withpeople who shared their views. Clubspublished pamphlets and held regularmeetings. Eventually, they wouldlead of the revolution.

Two of the most important clubswere the Girondists, many of whosemembers came from an area of France

called the "Gironde," and theJacobins, who met at the Parismonastery of Saint Jacques. Bothclubs started out moderate andmiddle-class. In fact, the Girondistswere originally a branch of theJacobin Club. Though the Girondistsoriginally wanted sweeping changesin government, they were viewed astoo conservative by somerevolutionaries. The Jacobins becameradical and were responsible for thecoming Reign of Terror. The twofactions became involved in a powerstruggle, which the Girondists lost.Most of them were sent to theguillotine.

THE SANS¬CULOTTESThe sans-culottes were mostly poorpeople from Paris and the largercities. They resented the bourgeoisieand were against reforms that wouldbenefit the business class. Instead,they wanted the national governmentto lower prices and supply bread tothe poor. The sans-culottes were very

violent. They formed mobs thatroamed Paris, attacking anything oranybody suspected of being againstthe revolution.

The sans-culottes supported theradicals who wanted to execute theking and aristocrats. They were led bythe fiery pamphlet writer, Jean-PaulMarat. They considered the leaders ofthe original revolution to be far toomoderate, and arrested andguillotined many well-intentionedpeople, including Madame Roland, aleader of the Girondists. (For more onMadame Roland, see page 65.)

MARAT, DANTON,ANDROBESPIERREJean-Paul Marat, Jacques Danton, andMaximilien Robespierre were theradical leaders of the revolution. Theywere opposed to any deals with themonarchy, and were prepared to bringthe king to trial and execution. Theyset out to destroy anyone who seemedto have sympathy for the old system.

Marat, the most radical of thethree, was murdered in his bath byCharlotte Corday, a Girondist, in

80 CHAPTER 3

3. Name three groups in society and summarize themain features of their clothing that help toidentify them.

Figure 3-28 This family wears clothing in the "modern"style of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Notice the simpleclothing and natural hair. This portrait was painted byVigee-Lebrun.

iREVOLUTION IN FRANCE 81

(crosscurrents)

Fashion and PoliticsThe manner in which people dresssays a great deal about who theyare—and who they think they are.Today, people often dress a certainway to display their identity, or as away of showing that they identifywith a certain group.

During the French Revolution,the sans-culottes (literally, "withoutbritches") were the poorest class.They identified themselves byrefusing to wear the knee breechesworn by the rich. Instead they worelong trousers. They also wore specialcaps, the same as those worn inancient Rome by freed slaves.

Fashion designers alsocaught the spirit of change.Before the revolution, richpeople, including children,dressed in elaborate, stiffclothing. They wore enormouswigs made of human hair.During the eighteenth century,many women began stylingtheir own hair and wore simplerdresses based on designs fromancient Greece and Rome. Theychose this period of historybecause it represented thenoble ideals of goodgovernment and freedom.

Figure 3-27 This woman and little girlbelong to the bourgeoisie. They would betrying to imitate the style of the court atVersailles. Their costumes would have beenentirely hand-made of the most costly fabrics.Notice how the girl is dressed as a tiny adult.Like most men and women of the period,they wear wigs made of human hair, whichwas probably bought from a young peasantwoman. Today, hair for wigs is bought fromwomen who live in developing nations.

Figure 3-26 The sans-culottes distinguished themselvesfrom the bourgeoisie by wearing distinctive clothing—inthis case, long pants instead of short breeches.

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

2. Do you think it is still possible for one person tostart a fashion trend? Can you give an example?

1. How would the clothing shown in Figure 3-28change the lifestyle of women used to wearingthe clothing shown in Figure 3-27?

Figure 3-29 This goldenamel pocket watchfeatures the portraits ofRobespierre and Marat. As ayoung lawyer, Robespierrewas opposed to the deathpenalty, but as a leader ofthe revolution he agreed tothe executions of hundredsof people. Robespierre alsotried to protect the queenand many Girondists, butfailed. Yet he demanded theexecution of Danton andother revolutionaries. Whatmight have been his motives?

Figure 3-30 This painting ofMarat is by Jacques LouisDavid, a former court painterfor Louis XVI. In this picture,Marat is made to look almostlike a saint. He is seated in abathtub because hecontracted a skin diseasewhile hiding in the sewers ofParis and the bath relievedhis discomfort. He holds anote from his assassin,Charlotte Corday. The knifewound is also clearly visible.What conclusions can youdraw about David's politicsfrom viewing this painting?

82 CHAPTER 3

1793. Danton and Robespierre, withthe help of important Jacobins, wouldeventually take control of theNational Assembly and the revolution.

THEREVOLUTIONARYWARSBy now, many European regimes were

nervous about what was happening inFrance. It became obvious that the

country was about to be invaded byforces that included many Europeanemigres who wanted to restore theking's power. France declared war on

Austria in the spring of 1792. Eventhough the French lost the firstbattles, the people's faith in therevolution never waned. In fact, theopposite happened. Marat, Danton,Robespierre, and others madepatriotic speeches, telling the peoplethat foreign troops would destroy thecountry and all their hard-earnedrights. Finally, at Valmy, the Frencharmies won a victory.

imi

THE ENDOFTHEMONARCHYThe war and other events had mademany people even more suspicious ofthe royal family. A newly electedbody—the National Convention—decided that the king should be tried

for his crimes against the country andexecuted. He had already beenremoved from the royal palace, whichhad been sacked and burned by theParis mob. The king, now called"Citizen Louis Capet," was tried forhis crimes and found guilty. He wasguillotined January 21, 1793. MarieAntoinette was guillotined inOctober.

DID YOU KNOW?The guillotine was originallyInvented by a humanedoctor to stop the sufferingof condemned prisoners. Itbecame an ideal killingmachine for the revolution.In Paris, over 1500 peoplewere guillotined in twomonths in 1794—anastonishing number.

scaffold: the raised platform for theguillotine or gallows

This eyewitness accountcomes to us from HenryEssex Edgemont de Firmont,the man who led Louis XVI tohis execution. Louis wasexecuted by the guillotine.

Figure 3-31 The movie Dead ManWalking recounts the true-life storyof an American nun (played bySusan Sarandon) who opposes thedeath penalty. Canada abolishedthe death penalty in 1975. Examinethe Canadian Charter of Rights andFreedoms (page 78) and the EnglishBill of Rights (page 47). Can youfind the phrase that would supportthe abolition of the death penalty?

The path leading to the guillotinewas extremely rough and difficultto pass; the king was obliged tolean on my arm, and from theslowness with which heproceeded, I feared for a momentthat his courage might fail; butwhat was my astonishment,when arrived at the last step, Ifelt him suddenly let go my arm,and I saw him cross with a firmfoot the breadth of the wholescaffold; ... I heard him

pronounce distinctly thesememorable words: "1 die

innocent of all the crimes laid tomy charge: 1 pardon those whohave occasioned my death; and Ipray to God that the blood you

are going to shed maynever be visited onFrance."

He was proceedingwhen a man on horseback, inthe national uniform, and with aferocious cry, ordered the drumsto beat. Many voices were at thesame time encouraging theexecutioners ... [who] in seizingwith violence the most virtuousof kings, they dragged himunder the axe of the guillotine,which at one stoke severed hishead from his body ... the

youngest of the guards, whoseemed about eighteen,immediately seized the head,and showed it to the people ashe walked around the scaffold... some cries of "Vive la

Republique" were heard. Bydegrees the voices multiplied,and ... this cry, a thousandtimes repeated, became theuniversal shout of the multitude,and every hat was in the air.

REVOLUTION IN FRANCE 83