December

Smart Economy in Smart Cities

CountriESCanada, China, Greece, india, italy, Kenya

nigeria, Palestine, Senegal, South Africa, thailand, uSA

AutHorSAle Badara Sy, Alioune Bakhoum, Ankit Kumar, Antonio Caperna, Aparna Soni, Ayesha Patel

Babacar Mane, Banji oyelaran-oyeyinka, Barry Gander, Bharat Dahiya, Bimal P, Bruce LazenbyCharles Duffett, David Sandel, Deepak S Kumar, Deepti Jayakrishnan, Dennis Mwaniki

Eleni Ploumidi, Femi Aiyegbajeje, Femi olokesusi, Gianluca Lecoque, Gora Mboup, Greg richardsGuglielmo Minervino, Ken Harrington, Kumar Ashok, Lakshmi Manohar, Luisa Bravo

Mame Cheikh ngom, Mark Hoddenbagh, Mark Kristmanson, Mohammed Firoz, Momar Dionguen Sridharan, naledzani Mudau, omondi odhiambo, Paida Mhangara, Patrick McKeehan

Pradip Sarkar, Priyanka Singh, raktim ray, ritch Dusome, robert ndugwa, romanus opiyoSamba Ndiaye, Silvia Paldino, Sorin Cohn, Stefano Serafini, Sujata Govada, Suwattana Thadaniti

Suzana Jacob, t.M.Vinod Kumar, themis Pellas, Wandia riunga, Wichaya Komin

the Bulletin is a monthly news letter for private circulation onlyfrom and for the research group of “Smart Economy in Smart Cities” project

OyebaNji OyeyiNka ∼ Femi OlOkeSuSi ∼ GOra mbOuPDeePTi jayakriShNaN ∼ GuGlielmO miNerviNO

Silvia PalDiNO ∼ GiaNluCa leCOque

EDitED BY

Bulletinnum. 12Year 2015

in this issue we explore Lagos in nigeria, and rawabi in Palestine. Gora Mboup is the coordi-nator of the former case and Deepti Jayakrish-nan coordinates the latter. We have a new author, Wichaya Komin, joined to the thailand group.this Bulletin is the last one, and we present here the table of Content of the book which

has 54 chapters. it will be made by 54 authors from 42 institutions. the book will be published by Sprin-ger in July 2016. the publisher will contact all coor-dinators in the next month. the next deadline is set on 15 February 2016, when all team must submit the Draft1 of their chapters.A great thank you to all contributors.

MAP oF StuDY CitiES

inVoLVED inStitutionS

1

N° Country City Bulletin Month N° Country City Bulletin Month

1 italy Bologna January 9 thailand Amphawa September

2 india Kozhikode February 10 South Africa Cape town September

3 india Vijayawada March 11 Senegal Dakar october

4 Germany Stuttgart April 12 uSA St. Louis october

5 india new Delhi May 13 india Varanasi november

6 Canada ottawa June 14 Kenya nairobi november

7 China Hong Kong July 15 nigeria Lagos December

8 Greece Heraklion August 16 Palestine rawbi December

Publishing Edito

r

intergovernmental o

rganizatio

n

Milestones for Publishing “Smart Economy in Smart Cities” Book

Government in

stitutio

n

Municipal G

overnment

university

research organiza

tion

College

Not-for-p

rofit Organiza

tion

Private Firm

Milestones Dates Book “Smart Economy in Smart Cities”1 15-2-2016 Submission of Draft 1 Chapters

2 25-4-2016 Submission of Draft 2 Chapters

3 30-7-2016 Publication and Distribution

5

uPDAtES

City: Ottawa - Institutions: I-CANADA; Invest Ottawa; Office of Chief Information Officer, City of Ottawa; IBM Centre for Business Analytics and Performance, University of Ottawa; Partnership and Applied Research at Al-gonquin College; National Capital Commission Ottawa; Centre of Excellence in Next Generation Networks; Con-ference Board of Canada; Sprott School of Business and the Department of Systems and Computer Engineering, Carleton University.

City: Hong Kong, HKSAR - Institutions: Institute for Sustainable Urbanization; UDP International; School of Architecture, Chinese University of Hong Kong

Canada

China

City: Heraklion - Institutions: Crete Lab; International Society of Biourbanism

Greece

City: Calicut (Kozhikode) - Institutions: National Institute of Technology Calicut

India

City: Vijayawada - Institutions: School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada

India

City: New Delhi - Institutions: School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, New Delhi

India

City: Bologna - Institutions: International Society of Biourbanism; City Space Architecture; Municipality of Bologna, Department of Economy and International Relationship; University of Rome Tor Vergata

Italy

City: Nairobi - Institutions: Global Observatory Linking Research to Action; African Migration and Develop-ment Policy Centre; Technical University of Kenya, School of Architecture and the Built Environment; University of Nairobi, Department of Urban and Regional Planning

Kenya

City: Lagos - Institutions: Global Observatory Linking Research to Action; Nigerian Institute of Social and Eco-nomic Research; UN-Habitat, Monitoring & Research Division

Nigeria

City: Rawabi - Institutions: Fletcher School of Diplomacy and Law, Tufts University

Palestine

City: Dakar - Institutions: Global Observatory Linking Research to Action; Agence Nationale de la Statistique et de la Demographie; University of Maryland, Consortium d’Entreprises Generale et de Services International Suarl, International Food Policy Research Institute, Brookings Institutions, Africa Growth Initiative, Global Eco-nomy Development, Population Council, Club de Reflexion sur l’Urbain, University Cheikh Anta Diop, Department of Geography

Senegal

6

City: Amphawa - Institutions: Chulalongkorn University, Social Research Institute (CUSRI)

City: St. Louis - Institutions: Washington University

City: Cape Town - Institutions: Global Observatory Linking Research to Action; South African National Spatial Agency

Thailand

USA

South Africa

LAGoSniGEriA

oyebanji oyeyinka, Femi olokesusi, Femi AiyegbajejeGora Mboup, Dennis Mwaniki, omondi odhiambo

7

Introduction

Lagos, the former capital of nigeria and the largest city in sub-Saharan Africa is located on the southwest coast of nigeria and has a history dating as far back as the 15th century when it grew as a trade center and seaport. it was captured by British forces in 1851, annexed as a British colony in 1861 and beca-me the capital (regional administrative centre) of the colony and protectorate of nigeria in 1914, a status it maintained until 1991 when the country’s capital was formally moved to Abujai,ii.

the city of Lagos is among the few African cities with a population of over 10 million and hence considered as a megacity. in 2014, the population of the urban agglomeration of Lagos was estimated at 12 million, more than the combined total population of the three other cities covered in this study (Cape town, Dakar and nairobi). A large population gives Lagos an eco-nomic comparative advantage associated to high po-pulation density and massive youthful active popula-tion. the urban agglomeration of Lagos is part of the Lagos State that encompasses an area of 3,577sq.km of which 787sq.km are lagoons and creeksiii. it has a population of 17.5 millioniV. Metropolitan Lagos, an area covering 37% of the land area of Lagos State is home to over 85% of the State’s population and about one third of nigeria’s urban populationV. Whi-le the population density of the state is about 4,193 persons per sq. km, the density in the built-up are-as of Metropolitan Lagos, made up of Lagos island,

the original city, and the Mainland, is over 20,000 persons per square kmVi.

Despite the movement of the federal capital to Abuja in 1991, Lagos has remained as the country’s domi-nant economic, social, and financial centre as well as the hub of national and international communi-cations. it is a thriving industrial and commercial centre with two seaports, local and international airports, and industries concentrated in the Apapa, ikeja, and ilupeju industrial estates. Most corpora-tions in the country are headquartered in Lagos and the urban agglomeration contributes more than half of the national economic development. Lagos State is rich in resources such as crude oil, bitumen, silica, clay and wood. in 2006 Lagos contributed 30% of ni-geria’s GDP, consumed more than 60% of its energy, collected 65% of its value added tax (VAt), and ac-counted for 90% cent of its foreign trade and 70% of its industrial investments. Lagos is one of Africa’s five biggest consumer markets, has higher standard of living than anywhere else in nigeria, and is home to almost half of nigeria’s skilled workersVii,Viii. in ad-dition, Lagos is a major educational centre, providing a well-educated and highly skilled labour pool. the employment opportunities continue to attract both domestic and international migrantsiX. it is, indeed, an economic hub for West Africa, with the Murtala Mohammed international Airport generating 82% of international airline departures within West Africa and between the sub-region and Europe. it is also home to the most active Stock Exchange in West Africa.

Unlocking the Potential of Lagos as a Smart CityA Transformation towards a Sustainable, Inclusive and Prosperous City

Fig. 1 - Lagos, Nigeria. Source: Flickr/ Warriorwriter

8

Despite its potential to be a sustainable, inclusive and prosperous city, Lagos smartness has been ham-pered by its weak city foundation. the city is not well planned with sufficient land allocated to streets and public spaces, and it lacks smart basic infrastructure and smart institutions and lawsX. Many settlemen-ts in the city lack a sewerage system and rainwater drainage facilities, and adequate waste management sites are missing, which are key components of smart basic infrastructure along with connection to water and energy. Flooding during rainy seasons as well as uncollected garbage is frequent phenomena in all parts of the city, but particularly in the poor settle-ments. Frequent energy shortages also affect the ci-ty’s economy. these challenges are associated with poor land administration and governance, characte-rized by lack of transparency and corruption.

Faced with continued slum proliferation associated with weak city foundation, the Government of La-gos State is developing various urban development programmes and projects that if adequately imple-mented will contribute to the smartness of Lagos as a city of the 21st century, a city which is sustainable, inclusive and prosperous.

the city of Lagos is among the four African cities that are part of the international project “Smart Economy in Smart Cities”. the three other cities are Cape town (South Africa), Dakar (Senegal) and nairobi (Kenya).

Concept of Smart Economy in Smart Cities in Africa

For the four African cities study, a smart city is viewed as a sustainable, inclusive and prosperous city that promotes a people-centric approach based on two core components: Smart City Foundation and Smart institutions and Laws. these two componen-ts are the pillars of the other seven dimensions of a smart city: infrastructure development (including transport and iCt), Environmental Sustainabili-ty, Social development, Social inclusion, Disasters exposure, resilience, peace & security, which in turn make a city economy smart (Fig. 2).

A smart city foundation is composed of three ele-ments: institutions & Laws, urban Planning & De-sign, and Basic infrastructure. For a city foundation to be smart, it must be inclusive at the onset of the urban planning and promote mixed neighborhoods where social clustering is prevented. Having all the poor living together creates slums and fuels insta-bility and insecurity. inclusive urban planning eases access to basic services (water, sanitation, housing, education & health), and decent employment for all. A key element of smart urban planning is a smart street network that reduces travel time and encou-rages walking and social interactions. Smart urban

planning enhances infrastructure development, en-vironmental sustainability, economic and social de-velopment; makes cities resilient and prepared to overcome natural disasters; and promotes mixed neighborhoods where services are walking distances from people’s residences (Fig. 3).

together with smart institutions and laws, the smart city foundations are the key pillars to the other seven dimensions of a smart city. Infrastructure Develop-ment incorporates access to transport, iCt, water services, sanitation facilities, sewerage system, waste management and energy. Environment Sustainabi-lity is composed of elements of energy, transport, building and pollution. Social Inclusion includes aspects of participation in decision making as well as according all city residents equal opportunities for growth and prosperity. Social Development is composed of elements of education, health, public spaces, social inclusion and social capital. Disaster Exposure incorporates elements of mitigation and

Fig. 2 - Conceptual Framework for Smart Economy in smart cities in Africa. Source: Mboup, 2014

Fig. 3 - Smart City Foundation. Source: Mboup, 2014

9

adaptation to various disasters such as flooding, droughts, storms and earthquakes. City Resilience is composed of elements of City Foundation, Envi-ronment, Social Capital, Social Development. Peace & security incorporates all forms of violence and conflicts, including domestic violence, violence in public places, crime, armed conflicts, terrorism, etc. An insecure city limits opportunities for investment and economic growth and cannot be a smart city.

Historical city foundation

Lagos, originally known as Eko has a history dating as far back as the 15th century when it emerged as a pepper farm, fishing post and later grew as a trading center and sea portXi. Lagos served as a major slave trade center between 1404 and 1889. it was captu-red by British forces in 1851, annexed as a British colony in 1861 and became the capital (regional ad-ministrative centre) of the colony and protectorate of nigeria in 1914, a status it maintained until 1991 when the country’s capital was formally moved to AbujaXii,Xiii.

Lagos has been administered under a variety of dif-ferent territorial schemes. Historically, Lagos started around the island and Mainland areas. it then grew into a small town. When it was ceded to the British in 1861, it was administered as a city-state with its own separate administration. in 1866 it was inclu-ded in the West African Settlements under a Gover-nor-in-Chief resident in Sierra Leone, but it retained a separate legislative council and a local administra-tion. Various changes followed, through its status as a separate colony, to its merger with Western nige-ria in 1951. When Lagos state was carved out as one of the then 12 states in the federation, Lagos assu-med new role as a regional administrative centreXiV.

owing to the historical investment by the coloniali-sts, and with the two administrative roles and their associated financial and administrative capacity, Lagos city area had a much higher degree of infra-structural development than the entire state and the rest of nigeria. this, coupled with the shifting focus of the country’s economy from agriculture to crude oil made Lagos attractive to immigrants from all par-ts of the country, as well as from other neighbouring countries. together with the segregationist planning and development practiced in the area during the co-lonial era Lagos continued to grow fast as an unequal city, and the population began to push pressure on the existing infrastructureXV, XVi.

Urban planning as a tool for segregation and de-velopment in Lagos during the colonial era

Spatial planning in its general sense was part of lo-cal indigenous administration in nigeria, long before

the colonial administration. By the mid 1800s, many indigenous cities in nigeria, though not urbanized in the modern sense which gives population thresholds had a form of arrangement of land uses in their do-main, with deliberate spatial organizations done around palaces and to conform to community needs for defence, religion or trade. Cities like Kano, Zaria, Ondo etc still retain their pre-colonial inner-city sett-lement structureXVii, XViii.

the traditional core area of Lagos had developed following a distinct urban design pattern that fol-lowed the typical Yoruba classical town plan which resembles a wheel, the oba’s (king’s) palace being the hub, with the spokes consisting of a series of roads radiating out from the palace and linking the town to the centreXiX, XX, XXi. Some of these aspects are still evident to-dateXXii. Elements of European plan-ning in nigeria started to emerge with colonialism in Lagos in the early 1900s, but were restricted to towns and localities where the colonial administra-tors and European expatriates were residingXXiii. the emerging planning legislation in Lagos throughout the colonial period aimed to create settlement zones throughout the city based on race. the 1863 Lagos town improvement ordinance which introduced the basis for control of development and urban sanita-tion in lagos protectorate was the first planning le-gislation in the country. this ordinance was followed by the 1902 Planning ordinance which empowered the governor to declare areas as European reserva-tions with a Local Board of Health of their ownXXiV. the Cantonment Proclamation enacted later in 1904 was the first major legislation that ushered in segre-gation of expatriate officials and europeans from the native areas in the guise of tackling the then prevai-ling public health problems in Lagos. the segrega-tionist development would be later furthered by the ordinance no. 9 of 1914 (on compulsory acquisition of land for public use) and the township ordinance No. 29 of 1917 (which classified urban settlements into different grades and established broad physical layouts of towns). The 1917 ordinance classified la-gos as the only first class township in Nigeria, giving it its own managerial authority in the form of a town council. Enforcement of this ordinance in Lagos ad-vanced the segregation tendency along racial lines with the creation of European reservation Areas for the expatriates and Europeans, and encouraged sub-division of native areas into indigenes and non indi-genesXXV. Among the key developments undertaken during this period was the development of Apapa in Lagos in 1926 as a self contained residential commu-nity that provided relief to Lagos island of its original port functions to focus on being the Business District CentreXXVi, a function that the island plays to date.

With focus being put on the European areas, nati-ve areas remained largely unplanned and largely lacking in infrastructure development. Population

10

increase in these areas subsequently led to conge-stion, and with lack of basic services, there was an outbreak of bubonic plaque in late 1920s in the nati-ve settlements of Lagos . As a result, a new inclusive planning and development approach was urgently required, and was drawn in the Lagos town Planning ordinance of 1928. Although this ordinance made town planning a government activity and resulted in reclamation of swampy areas of oko-Awo in the early 1930s and resettlement of the displaced peo-ple from the area to south of Yaba estate, the focus of development still remained in the affluent areas. Yaba north estate was developed during this time to provide housing to government officialsXXViii (Fig. 4). Subsequent ordinances such as the nigerian town and Country Planning ordinance no. 4 of 1946 con-tinued to emphasize on the concept of zoning, which continued to favour development in the European areas at the expense of the poor settlements occu-pied by the majority locals.

throughout the colonial era, more attention was devoted to the development of parts of Lagos (such as ikoyi) as a garden suburb, coupled with the deve-lopment of private commercial and club recreational grounds. Most of the facilities developed during this era continue to shape the urban landscape of Lagos, the most famous one being the European reservation

Areas, now known as Government reservation Are-asXXiX. the GrAs, which were the Europeans’ version of the garden city in nigeria was developed under the principle of creating cool fruit and flower gar-dens where one could sit on a veranda in the privacy of their home, and extensive public open spaces with recreational grounds and sports fields would be near both office and home, reached by shady pathwaysXXX.

Shifting the focus of urban planning to economic development - post independence

At the time of independence the focus of development in the country was simply sectoral and economic planning was favoured to conscious efforts aimed at resolving physical planning challenges. national De-velopment Plans, whose adoption had started a few years before independence with an objective to cre-ate policies, programmes and projects for achieving economic development in the country become the independent government’s development pathway. Subsequent adoption of master plans to guide spa-tial development of Lagos did not yield much post independence as a factor of limited capacity by the city authority to control growth; limited resources and investment in housing and basic service provi-sion; an urbanization rate that was faster than the city could respond to; focus of planning on creating

Fig. 4 - Major historical growth areas in Lagos. Source: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/africa/nigeria/lagos/map_of_lagos.jpg

11

physically attractive layouts as opposed to functional spaces among other challenges.

the period of military administration (1966-1979) did not bring much change, and if anything resulted is increased inequalities and deterioration of physi-cal infrastructure in Lagos and other urban areasXXXi. Focus was more on provision of infrastructure and development of agriculture in the rural areas, with emphasis on development of new towns which led to the emergence of Abuja and other satellite towns to LagosXXXii. the Federal Military Government accep-ted a report to construct a more central federal capi-tal in Abuja in 1976 further increasing Lagos’ woes. When development started in the Abuja Federal Ca-pital territory in 1980, little investment was made towards Lagos’s development despite the fact that the city continued to attract more immigrants and continued to function as the country’s commercial hub. the second republic period (1979-1983) and the period of return of military rule (1984-1999) did not also come with much development for La-gos, although various legislation related to planning were developed. inspite of formulation of these le-gislations, which were adequate at that time to pro-mote sustainable urban growth, they were not fully utilized for the purposes they were designed for and the recurrent planning problems in Lagos remained intractableXXXiii.

Historical urban planning, zoning and land deve-lopment in metropolitan Lagos

According to the Master Plan for Metropolitan Lagos, the urban land area was approximately 172 km2 in

1976 the major part (97.5%) of this land was in the contiguous built-up area, and the remaining 2.5% of the total metropolitan area was separated from the contiguous area of the metropolis. residential land use accounted for more than 50% of the total metro-politan land area followed by transport and circula-tion (about 18%), institutional and special use (about 14%) and open space and recreation facilities occu-pied the least land area (less than 3%) (table 1)XXXiV.

the medium-grade residential areas, mostly deve-loped for the europeans and government officials during the colonial era were characterised by gri-diron patterns with bungalows set within a mosaic of small plots of about 300 square metersXXXV. Most of the original bungalows have however been re-placed with multi- storey buildings in response to economic demands. the residential areas of Surule-re, Yaba, and Ebute-Metta are examples of this kind of housing developments. been reasonably impro-ved can be found in Ebute-Metta West, ojuelegba, obalende and inner ikeja. the poorest land grade areas which were never planned are in Mushin, So-molu, Ajegunle, Ajeromi, Agege and Yaba East (Fig. 5). these varying developments have resulted in varying development trends, which when compoun-ded by the metropolitan areas rapid urbanisation has promoted individualisation and fragmentation of land leading to increasing housing densityXXXVi.

Sources: Lagos State Government 1985 Vol. 1: 106; 2008 projections by Leke & Lawanson, 2010

Table 1: Lagos metropolitan area land use structure, actual (1976) and projected (2008)

Land use classification land area occupied (ha) Percentage of development

1976 2008 1976 2008

residential 8.939 9.669 51.9 52.1

Commercial 821 1.021 4.8 5.5

industrial 1.444 1.448 8.4 7.8

institutional & special use 2.366 2.784 13.7 14.0

open space & recreation 453 520 2.6 2.8

transportation & circulation 3.205 3.340 18.6 18.0

total 17.228 18.782 100 100

12

Fig. 5 - Lagos built up area. Source: http://what-when-how.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/tmp6741.jpg

Challenges to Lagos smartness

the fact that about Lagos metropolitan area accoun-ts for more than 85% of the entire state population and about a third of the total urban population in ni-geria has serious consequences for land use planning in the urban area. it also has great implications for infrastructure and for other socio-economic, cultural and administrative issues. Among the key challen-ges facing Lagos include, a decaying infrastructure, widespread urban poverty, massive unemployment, pervasive security inadequacies, land tenure chal-lenges, slum emergence and growth, high settlement density, conflicts in land use, narrow and poorly con-structed streets without drainage, traffic congestion, flooding, environmental decay, technical inadequa-cies and lack of manpower, unreliable power supply, and corruption. Even with massive inadequacies in infrastructure, Lagos stands out as the second best served urban area in terms of infrastructural facili-ties in nigeria, after AbujaXXXVii.

Rapid urbanization and uncontrolled urban de-velopment as a challenge to Lagos’ smartness

Lagos is one of the fastest growing urban agglome-rations in the world, with an estimated average an-nual rate of population change of 3.93% between 2000 and 2015, a rate that is projected to increase to 4.17% between 2015-2020 and further to 4.28%between 2020-2025XXXViii.

Although actual statistics in the state/metropolitan area are highly contested, Lagos has grown from being the 28th largest agglomeration in 1950 to being the 17th largest urban agglomeration in the world in 2015, and is further projected to rank 7th, with a population of over 24 million in 2030XXXiX. the city’s population rose from an estimated 25,000 inhabitants in 1866 to 74,000 in 1911, and betwe-en 1891 and 1952, the population doubled every 10 years to 0.27million people in 1952. More immigra-tion into the city was recorded during the oil boom period in the 1970s and 1980s and by 2002, Lagos became one of sub-Saharan africa’s first mega-urban regions when its population crossed the 10 million markXL. in 2006, a national census recorded the po-pulation of lagos State at 9.1 million. This figure was however disputed by the Lagos State Government, which conducted an independent census that gave a figure of 17.5 millionXLi, XLii.

the nature of development Lagos is characterized by commercial ribbon street development in which virtually all high-density areas are in a chaotic sta-te, with an indiscriminate mix of commercial, light industry, transport and religious land usesXLiii. the metropolitan area now accommodates up to 2600 loosely defined settlements and continues to grow in all directions, with newly growing areas such as the Lekki corridor, a spin-off from the highbrow Victoria island estimated to be growing at up to 16.6% per annumXLiV.

13

the high rate of population growth has resulted in very high demand for land and in turn high land pri-ces. These high prices, coupled with difficult land go-vernance structures and corruption in the land and development processesXLV have resulted in limited regard for formal processes to development. only an estimated 20% to 40% of development in the city is carried out with government approval and less than 5% of housing developments have formal land title.

Since policies to contain urban sprawl are weak in the state, informal settlements, which accommodate about two thirds of Lagos’ population, have develo-ped in many parts of the metropolitan area, mostly in the environmentally sensitive areasXLVi. Given that these settlements squat on the land they are located, evictions are common in the city, with more than 700,000 people having been evicted from their ho-mes and businesses since 1990XLVii. the government, in order to discourage consolidation of false tenure in these settlements is also reluctant to provide them with basic infrastructure making the living condi-tions difficultXLViii (Fig. 6).the multiplicity of administrative structures gover-ning the city/state has not made decision making easy. the state is subdivided into 57 local govern-ment areas, each headed by an independent council under the overall coordination of a state governor. technically, this means that there could be as many political programmes in operation in the state, ma-king coordinated growth a nightmare.

Transportation and the traffic congestion challen-ge in Lagos

Given the high population density in the commercial capital (and in turn a high vehicular density), the low

proportion of land allocated to streets (14% in the city coreXLiX), the modal split and the nature of tran-sport system adopted, Lagos has some of the worst traffic problems in africa. in a city where rail and wa-ter ways as an alternative means of transport are ba-rely developed, road transport is the major transport mode and the major scene for traffic congestion in Lagos. the almost single transport mode in the city has resulted in very high vehicular densities, estima-ted at 222 automobiles per kilometer against the na-tional average of only 11 per kilometerL (Fig. 7).

Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management started to become a major challenge in Lagos in the early 1970s when the oil boom, which compounded the emerging industria-lization and urbanization resulted in high volume of waste which became increasingly difficult for the local government councils in Lagos State to ma-nageLi. With only 40% sanitation coverage, and an estimated 10% solid waste collection rate, garbage heaps on the city streets are a testimony to the lo-gistical nightmare of clearing over 10,000 tonnes of refuse generated daily in the cityLii, Liii.

Unreliable power supply

inadequate power supply is a particularly a major challenge in Lagos with power blackouts experien-ced many times in a single day. this is a major con-straint to both manufacturing companies and resi-dents alike, who have to rely on generators for their daily power needs.

Fig. 6 - Lagos’ coastal location, settlement in environmentally sensitive areas and poor drainage systems result in flooding. Source: The World Bank, https://ojogbon.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/dsc06741.jpg

14

Fig. 7 - Traffic congestion is a major challenge to Lagos’ smartness. Source: http://royaltimes.net/wp-content/uplo-ads/2014/01/267.jpg

Insecurity as a challenge to Lagos’ smartness

Lagos accounts for a sizeable proportion of crime in nigeria, a situation that is further exacerbated by a low police to citizen ratio (1:1000 against the un re-commended target of 1:100LiV). in a study on security perception in various cities, 70% per cent of respon-dents in Lagos were fearful of being victims of cri-me, and 90% were fearful of the prospects of being killed in a criminal attack. the study further sugge-sts that the high violence rates in the city is related with institutionalized youth gangsLV, which is further related to the high levels of youth unemployment in the city. Land disputes and extortion, usually accom-panied by widespread violence, are quite common in the emerging settlements around the metropolis; po-litical skirmishes are also widespread in low-income areasLVi; and city is increasingly facing threats from terrorism. the numerous layers of culturally diverse ethnic templates, the high population densities and high levels of unemployment in the city have already resulted in severe inter-racial conflicts resulting in the loss of lives, particularly in the majority informal settlementsLVii. the levels of crime and social unrest are generally higher in the low income areas than in the middle and high income areas. the security si-tuation in Lagos is further discouraging investment in the city, and in turn reducing the city’s prospects of smart economic growth.

Opportunities for smartness in Lagos

Strategic location as an Economic hub for Nigeria and the West African Region

Despite the movement of the federal capital to Abuja, metropolitan Lagos has remained the country’s do-minant economic, social, and financial centre as well as the hub of national and international communica-tions. it is a thriving industrial and commercial cen-tre with two seaports, local and international airpor-ts, and industries concentrated in the Apapa, ikeja, and ilupeju industrial estates. Most corporations in the country are headquartered in LagosLViii. the economic advantage of Lagos has made it the most important economic centre in the country. in 2006, Lagos contributed 30 per cent of nigeria’s GDP, con-sumed more than 60 per cent of its energy, collected 65 per cent of its value added tax, and accounted for 90 per cent of its foreign trade and 70 per cent of its industrial investments. Five terminals and ports ge-nerate half of nigeria’s port revenue. the city is also an economic hub for West Africa, with the Murtala Mohammed international Airport generating 82% of international airline departures within West Afri-ca and between the sub-region and Europe. this not mentioning that the state is also very rich in resour-ces such as crude oil, bitumen, silica, clay and woodLiX. To further enjoy the benefits associated with lagos’ location and massive economic opportunities, massi-ve investment is required in the city’s infrastructure

15

development which is slowly eroding investor confi-dence in the state. the state government also needs to devise ways of promoting value addition and col-lecting revenue from the state’s informal economy which accounts for about 70% of new employment.

High population density and large consumer mar-ket

the level of urbanization is generally associated with numerous positive societal outcomes such as technological innovation, various forms of creati-vity, economic progress, higher standards of living, enhanced democratic accountability, and women’s empowerment. this makes cities places of opportu-nities where people tend to concentrateLX. From an economic point of view, cities with high densities have the potential for a concentrated, large labor and consumer market. indeed, Lagos with its population of more than 20, 000 habitants per square km is re-latively compact and is well placed to enjoy the be-nefits of concentrated labor and consumer markets. the city’s compactness and its associated economies of scale and agglomeration of economies must thus be viewed as an opportunity rather than a challen-ge to be tapped on as means of promoting economic growth.

Lagos has among the highest population densities in nigeria estimated at 20,000 persons/sq km in the built up areas. the state’s population of more than 17 million people has in itself been identified as a huge opportunity for Lagos, since it creates a huge market for goods and services which in turn hastens the process of economic development. in addition to the economies of scale the state offers, Lagos is also home to a large share of nigeria’s massive middle class estimated at between 9.9% (excluding the flo-ating class) and 22.8% (including the floating class)LXi, LXii. this class has not only been driving local eco-nomic growth through their spending habits, but has also been associated with a massive overseas shop-ping. thanks to the growing middle class in nigeria, the retail sector has recorded a strong growth and now the country is the largest market in sub-Saha-ran Africa with uS$160bn of retail sales in 2014, sur-passing South Africa. World class retailers such as Carrefour, Pick n Pay, and Shoprite have already or are keen to enter the market and the increase in hou-seholds’ disposable income will continue to attract international companiesLXiii.

other than the spending patterns, nigeria’s middle class is also socially conscious. in fact, 68% of the middle class attend associations or society meetin-gs and 61% volunteer for social workLXiV. this active participation for positive change is playing a key role in bridging the gap between financial growth and structural causes of inequality in the country. By adop-ting social media platforms, this group is working

with other social classes to push for social justice, good governance, fight against ethnic conflict as well as promote cultural production.

As clearly noted by the Legatum institute, “with the expectation that these consumers will move up from what is currently a nascent Middle Class, their consu-mption will add further support to economic growth in the region and support political and economic in-stitutions that are aligned with greater market com-petition and better governance”LXV. Lagos is best pla-ced to enjoy the benefits associated with the growing middle class, the high population densities and the high youth population.

Massive youth active population

With a median age of below 25 Lagos’s population is predominantly young. in recent decades, nigeria has undergone a general decline in both fertility and mortality associated with better access to health and family planning servicesLXVi. age of first marriage has increased allowing young people to stay longer at school and be equipped with knowledge and skills. 44% of nigeria’s population is under 15 yearsLXVii. this youthful population, which is already playing a major role in the growth of the middle class is likely to ensure a sustained economic growth and invest-ment through the next five decades. Statistics indica-te that 37% of the most financially privileged class in the country is in the age range 30-49 years; only 10% of this class is over 50 years of age; and that among the poorest class, only 27% are in the age range of 30-49 years and 20% above 50 yearsLXViii. With the right empowerment, Lagos’s young population can lead the vision for the city of tomorrow and work for it. the ability of the youth to adopt emerging techno-logies and transfer experiences from other parts of the world must be key drivers of nairobi’s smartness in the long term. Various studies show that Africa’s young people will be the driving force behind eco-nomic prosperity in future decades, but only if po-licies and programmes are in place to enhance their opportunitiesLXiX. these policies and programmes in-clude factors such as a strong rule of law, efficient bu-reaucracies, government stability, lack of corruption, and a stable business environment that encourage domestic and foreign investors. in order to benefit from its youthful population, Lagos must embrace smart education driven by the availability of iCt and respond to the requirement of the job market of the 21st century. it is also important to encourage young people’s participation in public life, and in policies, programmes, and services. However, the youthful population could also present a significant risk and threat to social cohesion and political stability if La-gos fails to create sufficient economic and employ-ment opportunities to support decent living con-ditions for themLXX. About 13.7% of nigerian youth (between the age of 15-24 years) are unemployedLXXi,

16

and the numbers are much higher in urban areas like Lagos. the effects of these levels of unemployment have already started taking a toll on the city as evi-denced by rising insecurity and cases of extremism among this age group.

Infrastructure development

Introduction of the Bus Rapid Transit

in the area of transport, Lagos State is fortunate to have access to all modes of transport (air, rail, road and water transportation). in response to the enor-mous transport challenges, the state government has embarked on heavy investment in the periodic maintenance and expansion of roads, construction of new roads, vehicular and pedestrian bridges, and im-plementation of Lagos urban transport Project. the project was designed to create an efficient, effective, integrated, intermodal mass transit system, involving land, water, and rail transport—and in the process, to contribute to poverty reduction. the state govern-ment’s policy thrust on transportation development has been centred on providing a safe, efficient, and sustainable integrated mass transit system, impro-ving transportation infrastructure and the traffic management system and introducing rapid rail tran-sportation. the Lagos State government in 2003 established the Lagos Metropolitan Area transport Authority (LAMAtA) to midwife its integrated Mass transit System. this project signaled the intention to re-orient the way transport services were managed (Mobereola, 2006). LAMAtA is responsible for the formulation, coordination and implementation of ur-ban transport policies and programmes. one of the most effective of LAMAtA’s initiatives has been the introduction of a Bus rapid transit (Brt) system on the mile 12 to CmS corridor. a fleet of brT buses runs on a segregated and dedicated lane, significantly re-ducing traffic congestion. To complement the brT system, the state government also introduced the

Corporate taxi Scheme in the city to provide secu-re taxi operations that meet international standards and best practices. About 1,225 of these taxicabs now operate in Lagos (Fig. 8).

Urban Light Rail Network

At the moment, LAMAtA has established an urban li-ght rail network in Lagos, with seven rail lines span-ning 264 kilometres. once complete, the network is expected to ease traffic congestion and provide em-ployment, particularly for the youth. two lines have been prioritized: the 27-km Blue Line, which will run from okokomaiko in ojo to Lagos island West; and the 24-km red Line, which will run from Agba-do in Lagos north to the Marina with a connection to the Muritala Mohammed international Airport ikeja. Each line is projected to carry 200 million pas-sengers per year. Designs have been completed and contracts awarded for both lines (Lagos State Gover-nment 2009b).

Water Transport

For water transport, lamaTa has identified six cor-ridors for water transportation: Badore, Badore-Ad-miralty-osborne-Marina, ikorodu-oworonsoki-Ma-rina, ijegun-Egba, the oke-Afa-Festac-Mile 2-Marina, and iddo-ota area-Marina. two of these corridors (ikorodu-oworonsoki-Marina and Badore-Admiral-ty-osborne-Marina) have already been opened with daily passenger service. old jetties have been reha-bilitated and new ones built in ipakodo, Badore, and osborne. new terminals have also been constructed to accommodate the watercraft, and some of these terminals will feature park-and-ride facilities as well as banking, shopping, and dining (Filani, 2012). in order to oversee the new water transportation ser-vices, the Lagos State Ferry Services was upgraded to the Lagos State Waterways Authority, to serve as a regulatory agency that is saddled with the respon-sibility of ensuring water safety and the use of best

Fig. 8 - Bus Rapid transit in Lagos operates on dedicated lanes. Sources: http://www.lamata-ng.com/media_pix.php; http://www.nigerialinks.com/images/stories/newlagos/new_lagos67.jpg

17

practices in achieving sustainable water transporta-tion. the development of water transportation has helped in integrating transportation modes in the city and brought relief to heavy traffic congestion oc-casioned by the high dependency on road transport. it has also opened up new avenues of investment and employment opportunities.

Air Transport

the Murtala Mohammed international Airport (MMiA) provides both local and international air transport services for the residents. the airport lo-cated at the centre of the city is accessible to every part of the metropolis. Most capital cities in nigeria and major cities of the world are connected to Lagos through the MMiA.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

one major way to foster international integration in development is through information and communi-cation technology (iCt). incidentally, advancements in iCt in terms of mobile telephone and high speed computer with networking facilities (intranet and internet) have practically redefined many aspects of our living. to this extent, the iCt revolution has proven to be further beneficial to lagos residents in the following ways: (i) Traffic monitoring- many ra-dio stations such as Eko FM, Wazobia FM and other radio stations within Lagos have found it expedient to use iCT media to monitor and disseminate traffic situation reports during critical commuting periods thereby assisting in preventing a worsening of the situation as in-coming commuters are advised to di-vert towards alternative routes. (ii) Environmental Data Collection and Monitoring-this is made more effective by using information technology, especially the geographic information systems (GiS). this tech-nology provides detailed and accurate digital maps in respect of various physical, economic and envi-ronmental data requirements (iii) Security Controls and Crime tracking- the Lagos State Government has been displaying some GiS-based video coverage of sections of the Metropolis which, when fully develo-ped, could prove efficient in tracking criminals and unearthing events the type that had hitherto been considered mysterious.

Another important aspect of the application of in-formation and communication technology was the introduction of the Lagos State Government Electro-nic Banking System of revenue Cycle Management (LASG EBS-rCM) project. Partnering with the private sector, Lagos State used high-level technology to en-sure more effective monitoring of collected revenue. revenue performance-enhancing measures included creating a robust database of taxpayers, eliminating ghost workers, and plugging tax loopholes.

nigeria has experienced a robust growth in her iCt sector over the past decade and has become a major attraction with technology companies that had ear-lier chosen South Africa as their African headquar-ters expanding to cities like Lagos. Whereas focus has in the past on South Africa and Kenya, a lot of attention is now being put on Lagos as evidenced by the arrival of tech companies such as “AngelFairWe-stAfrica” and “88 Mph”. With an improving invest-ment and business environment, Lagos is developing an iCt-themed start-up ecosystem that is drawing international investment and has seen the launching of several incubators [iroKo’s Spark, iDEA, rocket’s space and CcHub]. the city’s huge market for iCt go-ods, coupled with its estimated 700,000-1,000,000 broadband consumers are also making Lagos very attractive for iCt developmentLXXii. the importance of nigeria’s huge market size is best stressed by Kir-sten Buch, founder of 88Mph, in his statement that “ …….. and you can’t really say you’ve got African cove-rage, if you’re not in Nigeria… bigger, serious investors lean more towards Nigeria. It’s mostly about market size”LXXiii (and nigeria provides the necessary econo-mies of scale). the proposed establishment of “La-gos smart city” at the Lekki Free trade Zone is also likely to bring more investment in iCt in the country, and in turn boost the city’s economic growth. the ongoing and proposed investments in iCt in Lagos, coupled with the city’s huge manpower capacity are a sure way to boost the growth of a smart economy in Lagos.

Transforming Lagos to a sustainable, inclusive and prosperous city - Emerging approaches

over the years, the Lagos state government has ini-tiated various projects, which when fully implemen-ted will promote the growth of a sustainable, inclusi-ve and prosperous Lagos. Among the main initiatives include;- Proposed development of “Lagos smart city” - the Federal Government of nigeria has put in motion plans to establish a smart city at the Lekki Free trade Zone in Lagos, the country’s commercial hub. the 48 hectare imitative will host innovation and internet hubs which will boost productivity and inclusiveness throughout the countryLXXiV. - Policy and institutional reforms - the Lagos state government has initiated various policy and institu-tional reforms since 2000 to enhance performance of various sectors and to spur the state’s rapid eco-nomic growth. to address the housing challenge in the state, the government introduced the real Estate Developers Association of nigeria and a Ministry of Lands, Housing and urban Development in 2000 as well as restructuring the housing development sy-stem. Computerized land registries have also been introduced in Lagos, and the state government has established an electronic documents management

18

solution to fast-track title and mortgage documen-tation. A bill establishing the Lagos state mortgage board, with a mandate to generate an environment that enables access to mortgage finance was signed into law in 2010LXXV. these state policies and institu-tional setups augment well with the 2011 national Housing Policy and are likely to promote housing de-velopment and better land governance.

in 2011, the Lagos State government created a Mini-stry of Energy and Mineral resources to champion the city’s electricity challenges and ensure the deve-lopment of the state’s natural mineral resourcesLXXVi.

- Environment sustainability - the Lagos state go-vernment is making several efforts to create a safe, friendly, and sustainable environment conducive to residential, business, and recreational purposes. the Lagos State government is doing so through: i) efficient community-based waste management, (ii) aggressive “greening” and beautification of open spaces, decrepit loops, verges, and medians under operation Green Lagos (iii) social rehabilitation and economic empowerment of so-called area boys15 by engaging them in environmental beautification and landscaping projects (iv) upgrading of the olusosun landfill (ikeja) by constructing three access roads to tackle the perennial Oregun traffic, as well as instal-ling deodorizers to eliminate pollution and enhance the air quality and public health of adjoining neigh-bourhoods (v) Construction and equipping of eight waste transfer-loading stations at Yaba, ogombo, Ebute-Elefun (Simpson), oshodi, ishasi, Ajegunle, Abule-Egba, and oba ogunji Street (Agege) (vi) Pro-curement of 240 waste collection trucks and three (3)Tana giant landfill compactors for efficient wa-ste management at the landfills (vii) introduction of Dino bins in over 2,000 locations across the state and evacuation of illegal dumpsites at 10 locations including obele oniwala (Surulere), oba ogunji Stre-et (Agege), opebi (ikeja), Ajah (Eti-osa), and Festac Gates (Amuwo), as part of a new environmental and waste disposal project (viii) Establishment of the Lagos State Emergency Management Agency (LASE-MA) (ix) as part of Disaster Preparedness. Building of seven mini fire stations situated at the Palm Shop-ping Mall, Lekki; Simpson Street, Lagos; ojo-Alaba Market, ojo; oriade; ikotun; and the Apapa Dockyard to complement existing ones. to check the challenge of massive inadequacies in wastewater treatment in lagos, the state government set out a five-year sani-tation plan in 2010, which includes a goal to improve water treatment infrastructure- Disaster Preparedness - The policy targets of flo-od control in Lagos State are: to reduce incidence of flooding in lagos State from 40% to 20% of urbani-zed and semi-urbanized areas of Lagos by 2015 and eliminate all by 2025; Develop a Storm Water Drai-nage Master Plan for the entire Lagos and implement by ks; Develop frameworks for communication with

2025; Develop a regulatory framework for wetlands management in order to track and regulate land use pattern within approximately 10,000 ha of Lagos wet-lands to prevent erosion, storm water drainage chan-nel blockages, encroachments and contraventions; Sustain, improve and Promote the involvement of Private Public Partnership in the areas of restoration of urban Storm-water lines through the construction and reclamation of Canal Bank roads and Erection of wire-mesh fences on Drainage Channel set- backs; sustain the Continuous Monitoring of Flooding Pro-blems through the establishment of Flood Disaster Early Warning and Advocacy Mechanisms through the drainage offices within the 20 lGas and 37 lDCs; Develop institutional frameworks and communi-ty involvement for the upgrade, maintenance and de-silting of primary and secondary urban storm-wa-ter drainage infrastructure networks; Develop fra-meworks for communication with stakeholders and institutions involved in storm-water infrastructu-re management; and Develop policy and guideli-nes on storm-water infrastructure management.

Conclusion

Over the past one-and-a-half decades, significant progress has been made in the area of good gover-nance, urban planning, infrastructural development, and management as well as institutional reforms and resource remobilization. Considering the increasing influx of people with different background into la-gos, responsibility for its planning and development must be overhauled and expanded beyond the Lagos State government alone. Apart from the public sector involvement through the other levels of government, the emphasis on public-private partnership should continue, this is because the Lagos State government alone cannot achieve the expected standards of de-velopment giving the myriad of problems the State is facing on a daily basis. With such support from other sources, it is also very important for the Lagos State government to undertake all legislative reforms ne-cessary to make participation of the private sector and multiple levels of government possible so that the city’s inhabitants may enjoy the most equitable and sustainable social, political, and economic en-vironment as obtained in other smart cities of the world.

19

References and Notes

i okwuashi, o., J. McConchie, P. nwilo, E. Eyo., 2008. the challenges of urbanization, proceedings of Devnet Confe-rence, Wellington, new Zealand, December 3 – 5, 2008 ii https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nigeria

iii http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/pagelinks.php?p=6

iV http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/pagelinks.php?p=6

V okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

Vi http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/pagelinks.php?p=6

Vii okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

Viii https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lagos

iX okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

X Mboup, G., 2015. Sustainable City Foundation – Key for Sustainable, inclusive and Prosperous City, World Statisti-cs Congress, rio de Janeiro (Brazil)

Xi http://www.lagosstate.gov.ng/pagelinks.php?p=8

Xii okwuashi, o., J. McConchie, P. nwilo, E. Eyo., 2008. the challenges of urbanization, proceedings of Devnet Confe-rence, Wellington, new Zealand, December 3 – 5, 2008

Xiii https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_nigeria

XiV okwuashi, o., B. ofem, 2014. Historical Perspective of urbanization and urban Planning of Lagos, nigeria. inter-national Journal of Science and research 3 (8): 1994 - 1998

XV ibid

XVi okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

XVii Mabogunje, A. L., 1968. urbanization in nigeria. Lon-don: university of London Press.

XViii Sanni, L., 2006: Forty Years of urban and regional Planning Profession and national Development in nigeria. Journal of the nigerian institute of town Planners, 19 (1): 1-6

XiX ojo GJA, 1966. Yoruba Culture: A Geography Analysis. London: London university Press

XX Aduwo, A.,. 1999. Historical Preview of town Planning in Lagos before 1929, in olaseni, A.. M,. (eds) urban and regional planning in nigeria. Lagos: nigerian institute of town Planners, Lagos State Chapter, pp. 8-17.

XXi ojo GJA, 1966. Yoruba Culture: A Geography Analysis. London: London university Press

XXii Kayode o., Ago-iwoye, (nd). Historical Development of urban and regional Planning in nigeria. in the nigerian institute of town Planners (nd) State of Planning report.

XXiii ibid

XXiV Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XXV oyesiku, o. K. 2007. neighbourhood Segregation of the nigerian urban Spatial Structure: Security implication and Consequences, in ranvinder, S. S., J. Sandhu (eds) Globa-lizing Cities: inequality and Segregation in Developing Countries. rawat Publications, new Delhi

XXVi Aduwo, A. 1999. Historical Preview of town Planning in Lagos before 1929, in olaseni, A. M. (eds) urban and re-gional planning in nigeria. nigerian institute of town Plan-ners, Lagos State Chapter, pp. 8-17.

XXii Kayode o., Ago-iwoye, (nd). Historical Development of urban and regional Planning in nigeria. in the nigerian institute of town Planners (nd) State of Planning report.

XXViii ibid

XXiX Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XXX Falade, J.B., 1998. the History of Park Development in Nigeria. Paper presented at the first National Public lectu-re of Lagos State Horticultural Society, Lagos, nigeria

XXXi olomojeye, J.A.., 1999. Federal Government involve-ment in town Planning from inception, in olaseni, A. M., (eds) urban and regional Planning in nigeria. Lagos: ni-gerian institute of town Planners, Lagos State Chapter, pp. 80-84.

XXXii Kayode o., Ago-iwoye, (nd). Historical Development of urban and regional Planning in nigeria. in the nigerian institute of town Planners (nd) State of Planning report.

XXXiii Deinde, G. o. 1999. town Planning in Lagos State: 1973 – 1995, in olaseni, A. M., (eds) urban and regional Plan-ning in nigeria. Lagos: nigerian institute of town Planners, Lagos State Chapter, pp. 68-75

XXXiV Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XXXV Mabogunje, A. L., 1968. urbanization in nigeria. Lon-don: university of London Press.

20

XXXVi Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XXXVii ibid

XXXViii united nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014). World urbanization Prospects: the 2014 revision, CD-roM Edition.

XXXiX united nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014). World urbanization Prospects: the 2014 revision, CD-roM Edition.

XL un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

XLi Filani, M.o., 2012. the changing face of Lagos: from vi-sion to reform and transformation. Cities Alliance

XLii the actual population of Lagos has largely remained a mystery, with major variations recorded between un projections and census data. no post independence cen-sus exercise has been accepted by the Lagos State Go-vernment, something that is closely linked to the fact that a state’s population determines statutory allocations and is used to determine parliamentary representation, implying that census exercises in nigeria have both political and economic implications. (okwuashi, o & B. ofem, 2014).

XLiii Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XLiV okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

XLV According to the World Bank’s Doing Business 2013 re-port, nigeria ranks close to the worst globally, 182nd out of 185 countries for registering Property. the registration process is cumbersome, with 13 procedures, and lengthy, taking 86 days. it is also expensive; it costs an estimated 20.8% of the property value to register property, more than double the average for Sub-Saharan africa, and five times the oECD average. At each juncture, this process provides ample avenues for government officials to ex-tract bribes from prospective builders. this has resulted in the approval of shoddy plans and ineffective inspection during the construction process. this phenomenon partly accounts for the frequent collapse of buildings that have occurred in the city (un-Habitat, 2007. Global report on Human Settlements).

XLVi Center for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa, 2013. Africa Housing Finance: A review of some of Africa’s hou-sing finance markets. Parkview, South africa

XLVii un-Habitat, 2007. Global report on human settlemen-ts: Enhancing urban safety and security. Earthscan, London

XLViii Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

XLiX un-Habitat, 2013. Streets as Public Spaces and Drivers of urban Prosperity. un-Habitat, nairobi

L okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

Li okwuashi, o., B. ofem, 2014. Historical Perspective of ur-banization and urban Planning of Lagos, nigeria. interna-tional Journal of Science and research 3 (8): 1994 - 1998

Lii okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

Liii Economist intelligence unit (2011) African Green City index: Assessing the environmental performance of Afri-ca’s major cities. Siemens AG, Munich

LiV okunlola, P., 2004. the power and the heartbeat of West Africa’s biggest urban Jungle, in un-Habitat (2004), the State of the World’s Cities 2004/2005: Globalization and urban Culture, Earthscan, London

LV un-Habitat, 2007. Global report on human settlements: Enhancing urban safety and security. Earthscan, London

LVi Leke, o., t. o. Lawanson,. 2010. Poverty and Environ-mental Degradation in the Lagos Metropolis. unpublished manuscript

LVii un-Habitat, 2007. Global report on human settlements: Enhancing urban safety and security. Earthscan, London

LViii Filani, M.o, 2012. the changing face of Lagos: from vi-sion to reform and transformation. Cities Alliance.

LiX Filani, M.o, 2012. the changing face of Lagos: from vi-sion to reform and transformation. Cities Alliance.

LX Mboup, 2011, Place of opportunities and Challenges for migrants. high level seminar – Scientific analysis of migra-tion and the Global Environmental change, Eu/uK, Brus-sels, 8 December 2011. Mboup, G., 2012. Mboup. ,G. 2013. African cities; Places of opportunities and Challenges, Public Lecture. London School of Economics, London, uK.

LXi The african Development bank defines “floating class” as one of the sub-groups of the middle class whose per capita consumption is between $2-$4 per day. individuals in this level (which is slightly above the developing-world poverty line of $2 per person per day) remain largely vul-nerable to slipping back into poverty in the event of some exogenous shocks. the category is a hinge between the poor and lower middle class category.

LXii African Development Bank, 2011. the middle of the pyramid: dynamics of the middle class in Africa. AfDB Mar-ket Brief

LXiii Legatum institute, 2014. the 2014 Africa Prosperity report

21

LXiV renaissance Capital, 2011. A survey of the nigerian middle class.

LXV Legatum institute, 2014. the 2014 Africa Prosperity report

LXVi Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the united nations Secretariat, World Po-pulation Prospects: the 2012 revision

LXVii Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the united nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: the 2012 revision

LXViii Legatum institute, 2014. the 2014 Africa Prosperity report

LXiX Ashford S. L., 2007. Africa’s Youthful Population: risk or opportunity? Population reference Bureau, Washington DC., uSA

LXX http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/theme/youth_employment/ last access 21/11/2015. Promoting Youth Employment in Africa

LXXi national Bureau of Statistics, unemployment/ under-employment watch q1 2015

LXXii https://vc4africa.biz/blog/2014/07/09/nigeria-kenya-or-south-africa-which-is-africas-top-ict-hub/

LXXiii https://vc4africa.biz/blog/2014/07/09/nigeria-kenya-or-south-africa-which-is-africas-top-ict-hub/

LXiV http://govtechnology.com.ng/2015/09/fg-to-establi-sh-lagos-smart-city-lekki-free-trade-zone/

LXV Center for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa, 2013. Africa Housing Finance: A review of some of Africa’s hou-sing finance markets. Parkview, South africa

LXVi Economist intelligence unit (2011) African Green City index: Assessing the environmental performance of Afri-ca’s major cities. Siemens AG, Munich

rAWABiPALEStinE

Deepti Jayakrishnani, Ayesha Patel, Ankit Kumar

22

Rawabi is the first planned city in the West Bank as well as the largest private sector project ever un-dertaken in Palestine. Called the “Marshall Plan for Palestine,” investment in Rawabi’s construction will ultimately exceed $1.5 billion USD. It is an extraordinary project, possibly the first of its scale in a city

under military occupation. This piece examines the basic infrastructural and economic dilemmas facing citizens, private sector and public officials in an urbanized conflict and the challenges posed by military occupation to the aspirations of a smart city. While examining whether Rawabi, upon full completion, will meet the criteria for a smart city economy outlined in Chapter I of this book, special emphasis will

be given to its location in a conflict zone, social inclusiveness i.e whether people-centered, infrastructure to support industry, commerce, transportation as well as governance and institutional infrastructure.

I. Rawabi: Palestine’s first planned city

As the largest private sector undertaking in Palesti-nian history, rawabi aims to expand the local eco-nomy’s linkages to the global knowledge economy. it will introduce new technologies to the Palestinian construction sector and encourage international in-vestors and suppliers, particularly in the high-tech, health care and renewable energy sectors to take up a key role in bolstering current economic activities.

the city that has peaked interest and controversy in israel and Palestine, is the vision of an American Palestinian businessman, and one of the foremost private sector leaders in Palestine, BasharMasriii. the success of the commercial project is expected to

make a long-term, sustainable contribution to Pale-stinian prosperity. rawabi’s municipal boundaries encompass 6,300,000 square meters of land, which will initially be home to 25,000 residents, ultimately serve a city with a population of more than 40,000 andgenerate more than 5,000 permanent jobsiii.

rawabi, whose plan was announced in 2007, after years of delays and disputes with israel over multi-ple issues including water provision, construction permits, opened its gates to the West Bank’s middle class in August 2015.

An aspiring smart city under occupation

Fig. 1 - Topographical rendering of Rawabi.Source: Rawabi Foundation images. http://www.washingtontimes.com/multimedia/image/114_2014_map-low8201jpg/

23

II. Geographic and economic overview

Located 9 km north of ramallah, Palestine’s bustling capital and 3.5 km north of Birzeit, rawabi lies 25 km north of Jerusalem and 25 km south of nablus.

the West Bank is divided into three areas (Figure 3): Area A – with full Palestinian civil and military control (comprising the major cities of ramallah, nablus, Bethlehem and others); Area B – with Pale-stinian civil but israeli military control; and Area C – the vast majority of the West Bank under both israeli civilian (settlement) and military control.

the city is mostly on land in Area A, but also on Area B; requiring consultation with israeli authorities, in-cluding access roads.

Fig. 2 - Map showing Palestinian Territories

Fig. 3 - Map showing Areas A,B& C of the West Bank

Fig. 4 - Map showing location of RawabiSource: Bayti Real Estate Company

Table 2.1: Quick facts on the Palestine economyIV

Population 4,294,682income category Lower middle incomeGDP per capita $1.735unemployment rate 22.5% (West Bank only)Doing Business index 2016 rank 129 out of 189 economies

Palestine Authority’s revenue $2.1 billion

Palestine Authority’s expenditure $3.2 billion

24

III. Brief overview of Palestinian development in the context of historic conflict:

tackling the developmental concerns of the Palesti-nian territories is the responsibility of the ramal-lah-based Palestinian AuthorityV, as it is the only non-israeli political entity capable of passing laws and undertaking transformations that can allow for development. the other two political authorities that influence the lives of Palestinians are the israeli occupation and the Gaza Strip Hamas GovernmentVi.

the process of Palestinian development can be divi-ded into three major time periodsVii:

i. 1967-1994, which reflects the policies of Israeli occupation in the territories and ends with the si-gning of the Oslo Accords.the policies of the 1967 occupation, in the after-math of the Six Day War, may be likened to im-perial/colonial policies in Latin America, in Asia and africa in the fifteenth and sixteenth centu-riesViii. they allowed a bigger market for israeli products to exist, and provided cheap Palesti-nian labor for israeli production.the oslo Accords represented the idea of “peace through separation” which would theoretically enable a two-state solution to materialize as a natural end to the arab-israeli conflict. This ap-proach, however, was an economic disaster re-sulting in further loss of Palestinian employment opportunities in israel, further decreasing the level of income of PalestiniansiX.

ii. 1994-2002, which reflects the “informative years” when various processes of development were un-derwayisraeli closure policy was initiated on March 29, 1993, completely limiting Palestinian access to israel for any purpose, including denial of permi-ts to Palestinian laborers to work in israel. the closure policy was justified on the basis of israeli security concerns; major violent attacks against israelis started after this closure policyX. the Palestinian Authority’s economic policy during this period was best characterized as a series of various spontaneous, incoherent measuresXi. Stimulating the economy through a Keynesian mechanism of increased governmental spending has been the primary tool of its economic policy, but unaccompanied by correcting measures to balance that growth, it contributed to inflation.Factors including the failure of Camp David ne-gotiations in 2000 and the Palestinian Authori-ty’s inability to deliver on its economic promises precipitated the intifada of 2000.

iii. 2002-present day, which has been characterized by violent confrontation between the Palestinians and Israelis, which has undermined the potential

of progress socially, economically, and politically.Salam Fayyad, an internationally recognized economist, began a mission of institution buil-ding first as Finance minister of the Palestinian Authority in 2002 and as Prime Minister in 2007.the goals of his policy have three compo-nents: strong security, economic growth and a representative government. As it stands, Salam Fayyad’s vision has provided an easement of mo-vement and a certain level of economic growth, but these ‘successes’ can easily be unraveled by israel.

the destructive role of israeli occupation cannot be ignored, as it is effectively in control of the Palesti-nian economy.the policy of the state of israel vis-à-vis Palestinian development was pointed out by the late prime minister of israel Yitzhak rabin, who said “[that] there will be no development in the occupied territories initiated by the israeli government, and no permits will be given for expanding agriculture or in-dustry which may compete with the state of israelXii.”

Some scholars find direct association between deva-station of the Palestinian economy with the effects of the occupation, while others go beyond by cha-racterizing them as policies of “de-development” i.e. a strategic program that “not only distorts develop-ment, but forestalls it entirely by depriving or rid-ding the economy of its capacity and potential for ra-tional structural transformation and preventing the emergence of any self-correcting measuresXiii.” these policies justified as measures against the perceived security threat of Palestinians to israel are, essential-ly,the fundamental cause of the perpetual underde-velopment of the Palestinians. these are exacerbated when the enormous quantity of weapons, violence, corruption and overall political instability is taken into consideration.

IV. Plan overview and highlights

the city’s master plan integrates international best practices for urban master planning, sustainable en-vironmental policy, regionally-suited architecture and state of-the-art infrastructure for residents, en-terprises and visitors. the city’s planning began in 2007;private lands were acquired and other lands sequestered by the government in 2009 and con-struction began in 2010 to realize the city’s ideals of ‘live, work, and grow.’

rawabi will ultimately have 5,000 housing units with multiple floor plans spread across 23 neighbourho-ods. underground parking areas and pipelines, playgrounds interspersed among apartment blocks, walking trails and wide sidewalks, all uncommon in other Palestinian cities, feature throughout rawa-bi. Now that the first tens of families have begun to

25

reside in the city, construction is being completed in phases, with the commercial center and first few re-sidential neighbourhoods almost complete. the plan envisages the following spaces: Parking 50,000 m2, Cinema 1,200 m2, Cinema & retail shops 14,200 m2, restaurant 7,200 m2, residential 30,000 m2, Offices 67,000 m2, Convention centre 10,000 m2, Hotel & Spa 20,000 m.2

the city is home to Wadina, a leisure destination fe-aturing a soccer pitch, planned AtV track and water park, and the largest outdoor amphitheatre in the Middle East with a seating capacity of 15,000. the city comprises places of worship for both Christians and Muslims, private and public schools, and a me-dical clinic.

though the Palestine Authority had agreed to pay for building public amenities including schools, a police

station costing $150 million, much has not materia-lized and were undertaken by Bayti, rawabi’s deve-loper.

ICT Hub& Commercial Center

the iCt Hub has received exposure to iCt companies with visiting international delegations being offered iCt enabled infrastructure, up to 15% discount on iCT Services, housing and transportation benefits. So far 28 companies are expected to make their presen-ce in the iCt HuB. the city’s design incorporates a commercial center or ‘q center’ resembling the letter q in homage to the city’s initial co-sponsor, qatari Diar. The q center is set to incorporate Palestine’s growing tech firms, renewable energy sector, and service industries, as well as new retail opportuni-ties. Fiber optic networks are set to permeate the ci-ty’s commercial center, providing Palestinians a new

Fig. 5 - Before and after commencement of Rawabi project

26

standard of living. Smart monitoring through meters for gas, water, and electricity, building management systems, ‘greener’ city transit as well as smart secu-rity, lighting, and fast speed fibre-to-the-home will soon exist in rawabi. Besides the aim of creating 5000 permanent jobs in the city, 10,000 jobs have al-ready been created during construction.

Making housing accessible

rawabi has challenged the conventional attitude toward home ownership in the West Bank by in-troducing a new concept: the long-term mortgage.traditionally, Palestinians build their homes on fa-mily land, expanding the house as money becomes available. Before rawabi set up a mortgage company granting 25-year loans, the typical Palestinian loan would entail a five- to eight-year payback periodXiV. the Palestinian Monetary Authority used to require a down payment of 20% of the property’s value, a rate rawabi successfully lobbied to lower to 15%XV.

V. Local urban governance and policy

the rawabi Municipal Council envisions itself bre-aking new ground for Palestinian local governance, taking full advantage of the opportunities to create important new standards and precedents in areas where none previously existed. Adherence to zoning mandates and best practices in urban planning, ser-ving as the central point of contact for the rawabi Homeowner Associations representing city resi-dents have been identified as top prioritiesXVi. the Palestinian Cabinet appointed Mayor Abd Al Fatah to serve as the head of rawabi’s interim munici-pal council, pending election of permanent council members. it held its first meeting on june 30, 2013. the 11 councilmen and councilwomen were drawn from the Palestinian public and private sectors, civil society, academia, legal and regulatory agencies. the new council will serve until rawabi’s population rea-ches the legal threshold for general elections for the municipal council seats as established by the Local Council Elections LawXVii.

the creation of the new rawabi municipality set an important precedent in that it showed the Cabi-net’s proactive stance towards the responsibilities of self-governance. it is generally agreed that six addi-tional municipalities are needed to effectively mana-ge population growth as new urban centers are crea-ted and the Palestinian economy expandsXViii.

The key findings on urban policydialogue for a smart city under military occupation are the following:

Table 5.1: Key findings for urban planning policy for cities in conflict• Temporary conflict infrastructures intended to sol-

ve problems in the short term – for example, walls and buffer zones – tend to become permanent. re-versing the negative spatial, social, and economic ef-fects of this can be extremely difficult or impossible.

• Policy makers should be alert to the implications of roads in contested cities. they can be used to connect and thus favour certain groups over others, and can divide with pernicious results.

• the planning of parks and green spaces – however well-intentioned – can contribute to further divi-sion by severing connections and creating urban spaces that are ‘dead’ for much of the time. Whilst such plans may be couched in arguments about eco-logical responsibility and preservation, they should be examined for hidden agendas that privilege par-ticular points of view.

Source: Conflict in Cities researchXIV

VI. Challenges posed by military occupation

“In a highly urbanized world like the one we live in, ci-ties become the strategic place of violent conflict. Eco-nomic, religious, gender and ethnic differences are ne-gotiated every day on the urban arena, when tensions become conflict and conflict escalates into violence, the urban space become the battlespace. The process of city building with all its conflicts and tensions then is a tool for both violence and reconciliation. In short, the tools of urbanization are the tools of war in an ur-banized conflict.”

Dr. Jota SamperMIT Department of Urban Studies and PlanningXX.

While the rawabi project’s goals are lofty, and the ci-ty’s construction is fully underway, the realities have been harsh.

27

Mobility deprivation as a tool of conflict

Conflict infrastructures namely walls, buffer zones, checkpoints, urban enclaves, and even large roads, tramways and motorways manifest themselves in various ways, with great impact on socio-economic connection or divisionXXi. With 490 closures inclu-ding 60 checkpoints and 147 earthmounds, the West Bank region is an example of mobility, or lack of it, being used as a tool of conflict.

According to Mr. Masri, he and his colleagues spend about 70 percent of their time on bureaucratic mat-ters such as obtaining permits, given rawabi’s loca-tionXXii. All imports have to come by way of israel as there is no airport or port in the Palestinian Autho-rity territories.Although the project was announced in 2007 and construction began in 2011, it took until June 2012 to secure a temporary annually renewable permit from israel, for a narrow, mile-long, section of the access road to the site, which passes through a part of the West Bank that remains under full israeli controlXXiii.

Israeli work permit closure policy

A quick look at statistics shows the extent of Pale-stinian economic vulnerability and dependence on israeli work opportunities. Due to the israeli closure policy of 1993, the average monthly number of work permits granted by israel to Palestinians workers residing in the territories dropped from 46,530 in 1997 to 8,083 permits in 2001XXiV. According to Wor-ld Bank estimates, the unemployment rate jumped from 18% in 1993 to 34.2% in 1996XXV.

Denial of permission for water supply

under the last tangible agreement of the protracted negotiations namelythe 1995 oslo Agreement, all

new water facilities in the West Bank require prior approval from a Joint Water CommitteeXXVi. Disagre-ements regarding water infrastructure for israeli settlements in the West Bank led to deadlock in the Committee. There was neither any water flowing to rawabi, nor any sign that water would be permitted to the city between 2010-15. israeli Prime Minister binyamin Netanyahu finally permitted water supply to the city through a unilateral decision in March 2015. However, only 300 cubic metres of water per day will be permitted, which is sufficient for the ci-ty’s first 5000 residents.

Political opposition to the project

While international organisations such as the united nations, international governments, international private sector, israelis and Palestinians support the construction of the city, hardliners on both the isra-eli and Palestinian side vehemently oppose the city’s construction.

From israeli settlers in the West Bank attempting to steal the Palestinian flags flying from the showroom to more protracted bureaucratic delays, the success of the project is continuously jeopardized by the poli-tical situation on the ground. though the project ma-kes to use indigenous materials wherever competiti-vely possible, the project has been strongly criticized by the Palestinian Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions national Committee, which opposes any normal ties with israel. the committee has accused Mr. Masri of promoting his private interests at the expense of Pa-lestinian rights, of whitewashing the israeli occupa-tion and even ‘normalisation’ of the conflict between israel and PalestineXXVii. With flat roofs, hidden water tanks and wiring, and clean rawabi stone cut from the hills themselves, the aesthetic of the city has been likened to israeli settlements across the West Bank and right on the opposing hills.However, no israeli

Fig. 6. Conflict Infrastructure in Jerusalem. Source: Conflict in Cities

28

companies have been involved in constructing the city. Hundreds of israeli suppliers provide it with raw materials such as cement, sand, electric compo-nents and plumbing- in fact, Mr. Masriestimated that israeli businesses benefit from the rawabi project to the tune of tens of millions of dollars a month. the only political principle rawabi holds with relation to israel is no cooperation with businesses in the sett-lementsXXViii.

VII. Economic development in the midst of politi-cal and violent conflict

Political, historical and socio-economic contexts are quite different in the present instance of rawabi from the time of George C. Marshall, yet a few im-portant lessons can be learnt and observations made upon comparison with the Marshall Plan- European Post recovery WWii Program 1947-1952 (“Marshall Plan”). Another distinguishing feature is that the Eu-ropean community was united in its will for revival and rehabilitation, as well as reconciliation and he-alingXXiX.

One of the most successful post-conflict recon-struction programs of all time, the $16.2 billion Marshall Plan to rebuild war-ravaged Europe in the aftermath of World War ii, was based on the premise that there could be “no political stability and no assu-red peace” without economic security. While the u.S. demanded from all recipient countries a firm com-mitment against communism, it did not force them to

give up institutional arrangements, respected local prioritiesXXX, strongly encouraged them to deregula-te the postwar economy and place greater reliance on market mechanismXXXi.

The most important lesson from the Plan, specifically for rawabi, deals with perceptions, expectations and visions, which are more significant than any actual financial and economic programXXXii. its psycholo-gical importance can hardly be overestimated: the Plan immediately offered a vision for Germany to be integrated into the community of Western Democra-cies. A second most important lesson is the impetus the reconstruction Plan gave to regional planning and regional integration, so that reconstruction ef-forts are supported by outsiders rather than shaped by themXXXiii. Literature at the intersection of infra-structure development and contemporary conflicts also reveals that a long lasting solution to the eco-nomic and political problems of individual societies requires an emphasis to a wider regional context and cooperationXXXiV. Pragmatism was another important factor: plans in the reconstruction program were changed when there was no progress madeXXXV.

Five fundamental issues have been drawn out of the marshal Plan and frequently used to reflect upon si-tuations of contemporary conflict; a similar compari-son is made below in table 2.

the chapter will evaluate smart economy keeping this view in mind.

Table 2: Comparison of five fundamental issues between the Marshall Plan & economic development in Pale-stine (Rawabi)

Attitude Recipient/s’ Values

Integrative Aspects

Strategic Factors CapitalGovernance

the Marshall Plan

Critical political momentum, high optimism and confidence were created

Far reaching restructuring process in kee-ping with social values

Consolidation & multilateral vision of integra-tion in the global economy

Long term evol-ving system that created a conti-nuing economic momentum

Proactive and sustainable aid program. rege-neration of social capital.

international Community & Private Sector reconstruction in Palestine/rawabi

More political op-position, rather than real and su-stained political momentum

Severe political & social problems cannot be solved with money injection alone (donor aid or private sector investment)

Prolonged disin-tegration, culture of dependency on aid, disillusion-ment with the peace process, dysfunctional economy

Long term plan but a departure from traditional model, many ob-stacles including regional and local opposition

Clear vision, but neither inclusive nor with a syste-matic approach. Weakened social capital

29

References and Notes

i the views expressed in this contribution are personal views of the authors and do not reflect those of their re-spective employers. the authors do not guarantee the accuracy of any of the territorial boundaries in the maps referred.

ii Chairman of Massar international and Bayti real Esta-te investment Company, entities established to jumpstart the development of the Palestinian real estate sector with a mission to create affordable, accessible, family- friendly communities and create several thousand direct and indi-rect employment opportunities for Palestinians, providing multi-level stimulus to the national economy. About rawa-bi <http://rawabi.ps/about.php> accessed on october 1, 2015.

iii ibid.

iV Compiled from index mundi, West bank economy Profile <http://www.indexmundi.com/west_bank/economy_pro-file.html> and World bank Group, Doing business 2016: measuring regulatory quality and efficiency, <http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/west-bank-and-gaza/> accessed on Dec. 20, 2015.

V the oslo Accords of 1993 established a Palestinian na-tional Authority (henceforth PA) as an interim body to run parts of Gaza and the West Bank (but not East Jerusalem) pending an agreed solution to the conflict. it functions as an agency of the PLo, which represents Palestinians at in-ternational bodies. it is led by a directly-elected president, who appoints a prime minister and government which must have the support of the elected Legislative Council. bbC Country Profile: Palestine territories <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14630174> accessed on December 15, 2015.

Vi Hamas is shunned by israel, many Arab countries and the West.

Vii Karam Dana, “Political Economics: the Challen-ges of Economic Development in Palestine,” the Dubai initiative, Belfer Center for Science and international Affairs, 2011 <http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/21755/political_economics.html?breadcrum-b=%2Fexperts%2F2322%2Fkaram_dana> accessed on Dec. 20, 2015

Viii israel’s GDP jumped from uS $17.712 Billion in 1966 to uS $ 21.21 and uS $54.48 Billion in 1986 (constant 1995 Dollars). For elaboration, see Barghouthi, Samir. Develop-ment of the Palestinian Economy 1948-1997. ramallah: the Democracy and Workers rights Center in Palestine, 1997 as referred in Dana, supra n. 7.

iX ibid.

X ibid.

Xi ibid.

Xii Yitzhak rabin, while holding the post of israel’s defense minister in 1986, (unCtAD, new York, 1989 p. 148) as re-ferred in Dana, supra n. 7.

Xiii roy, Sara. the Gaza Strip: the Political Economy of De-development. Washington D.C.: institute for Palestine Studies, 1995; roy, Sara. the Palestinian Economy and the oslo Process: Decline and Fragmentation. Abu Dhabi: Emi-rates Center for Strategic Studies and research, 1998 as referred in Dana, supra n. 7.

XiV Elhanan Miller, “in rawabi, the brand-new Palestinian city, both sides win,” times of israel, February 19, 2014 <http://www.timesofisrael.com/in-rawabi-the-brand-new-palestinian-city-both-sides-win/> accessed on octo-ber 1, 2015.

XV ibid.

XVi About the Municipal Council <http://www.rawabi.ps/members.php> accessed october 30, 2015.

XVii ibid.

XViii ibid.

XiX “rethinking Conflict infrastructure: how the built envi-ronment sustains divisions in contested cities,” Conflict in Cities and the Contested State, briefing paper 2 <http://www.urbanconflicts.arct.cam.ac.uk/downloads/brie-fing-paper-2>

XX Dr. Samper teaches 11.488 urban Development in Con-flict Cities: Planning Challenges and Policy innovations.

XXi Supra n. 19.

XXii isabel Kershner, “Birth of a Palestinian City is Pun-ctuated by Struggles,” new York times, August 10, 2013 available at <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/11/world/middleeast/birth-of-a-palestinian-city-is-punctua-ted-by-struggles.html?_r=2> accessed on november 1, 2015. Also see Clifford D. May, “Building a shining Palesti-nian city on a hill: investment in Middle East peace is a ri-sky business,” Washington times, november 4, 2014<http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2014/nov/4/may-building-a-palestinian-city-on-a-hill/?page=all> ac-cessed on november 1, 2015

XXiii ibid.

XXiV Supra n.

XXV Palestinian Economic Council for Development and re-construction (PECDAr ).“People under Siege 2001.” PECDAr online. http://www.pecdar.ps/etemplate.php?id=280; accessed August 22, 2011.

XXVi israeli-Palestinian interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza StripWashington, DC, September 28, 1995 <http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy/peace/guide/pages/the%20israeli-palestinian%20interim%20agreement.aspx> ac-cessed on november 30, 2015. it was signed in taba in Egypt on September 24, 1995, and countersigned four days later in Washington.

XXVii Supra n. nYt

XXViii Supra n. toi

30

XXiX hasic, T. “reconstruction Planning in the Post Conflict Zones: Bosnia & Herzegovina and the international Com-munity,” Department of infrastructure, Division of urban Studies at the royal institute of technology, Stockholm <https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:14256/FuLLtEXt02.pdf> accessed on December 20, 2015.

XXX Hogan, J.M. (1987) the Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947-1952. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press, as referred in Ha-sic, ibid.

XXXi Carbonnier, G. (1998) “Conflict, Postwar rebuilding and the Economy: A Critical review of the Literature.” Ge-neva: un research institute for Social Development and Programme for Strategic and international Security Stu-dies, the War-torn Socities Project, occasional Paper no. 2 and 3, February & June 1998 as referred in Hasic, supra n. 29.

XXXii Supra n. 29.

XXiii Lake, A. (1990) After the Wars: reconstruction in Af-ghanistan, indochina, Central America, Southern Africa and the Horn of Africa, new Brunswick, nJ: transaction Publishers as referred in Hasic, supra n. 29.

XXXiV Supra n. 29.

XXXV ibid.

31

laGOS - NiGeria

AutHorS

Oyebanji Oyeyinka - oyebanji.oyeyinka@unhabitat.org

Prof Oyebanji Oyeyinka is the Director of uN-habitat’s regional Office for afri-ca. Prior to that he was the Director of un-Habitat’s Monitoring and research Division and Senior Scientific advisor to uN-habitat’s executive Director. With un-Habitat, he was the Director of the State of the World’s Cities (2008-2012) and the state of Youth. Prior to joining un-Habitat, Prof oyebanji oyeyinka was a Professorial Fellow at unu-MErit, where he served as Senior researcher and Professor of technology Management and industrialization until December 2006. A nigerian national, he joined the former unu-intECH (now unu-MErit) in March 2001 after working with the united nations Conference on trade and De-velopment (uNCTaD) as senior economic affairs officer coordinating the ten-ye-

arly review of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs). Prior to that he was professor at the nigerian institute of Social and Economic research (niSEr), ibadan, nigeria. For several years he also served as the national co-co-ordinator of the African technology Policy Studies (AtPS) network in nigeria. Professor oyeyinka obtained a DPhil. in technology Policy and industrialization from the Science Policy research unit (SPru), university of Sussex . He has done considerable work on information and communication technologies (iCts) and small and medium enterprise (SME) and clusters, within the systems of innovation framework. He is a contribu-tor to several books including: (1) Putting Africa First: the Making of African innovation Systems”, (Aalborg Press, 2003); and (2) “Africadotedu: it opportunities and Higher Education in Africa “, (McGraw Hill, 2003).

Femi Olokesusi - femioloke@yahoo.com

Professor Femi olokesusi has a BSc (Honours) Second Class upper Grade from the university of Lagos, Akoka, a Masters Degree in Environmental Studies from York university, toronto, Canada, and a Ph.D in Geography (with specialisation in Environmental Planning and Management) from the university of ibadan, nigeria. He has been a Fellow of the nigerian institute of town Planners since 1999, and has over 30 years of professional experience, in teaching and resear-ch/consultancy. Femi is a research Professor in the nigerian institute of Social and Economic research (niSEr), ibadan, a national Policy think tank. Between 1999 and 2006, he was Director of the Physical Planning Department at niSEr. Between 2004 and 2006 he was Head of the transport Studies unit in niSEr.

Among other professional and administrative duties, he acted as the Director-General of niSEr from Decem-ber, 2010 to august, 2011. as a 1994/95 Fulbright african Senior Scholar, he was affiliated with the institute of Environmental Studies, university of illinois, urbana-Champaign, uSA. in addition, he has consulted for se-veral national and international agencies including the united nations Development Programme, un-Habitat, nairobi; unCtAD, Geneva; World Bank, Washington, D.C.; uK-DfiD, London; international Development re-search Centre, ottawa, Canada; Federal Ministry of Environment and national Planning Commission, Abuja. He participated in drafting nigeria Vision: 20:2020, national integrated infrastructure Master Plan, and the Abeokuta Master Plan. He recently participated as a Land use Planner/Local Economic Development Expert on the Structure Plan project for Lokoja and Dekina cities in Kogi State under the un-Habitat/Kogi State Go-vernment Cities Structure Plan Project. Femi is a member of the independent Advisory Group of the World Bank assisted ibadan urban Flood Management Project. He has over 90 publications in form of edited books, peer reviewed journal articles, book chapters, monographs and conference proceedings.

32

Femi Aiyegbajeje - femidavid2002@yahoo.com

Femi Aiyegbajeje is a holder of B.Sc and M.Sc degrees from the Department of Geography, Faculty of the Social Sciences, university of ibadan, nigeria. He’s pre-sently preparing for the final defence of his PhD thesis at the same university. his interests dwell on communication geography, regional development and resear-ch methods. His ongoing scholarship projects include: ‘Effect of mobile telepho-ne usage on reduction of trips to healthcare centres in lagos metropolis nigeria’ and ‘Spatial determinants of patients’ mobile telephone usage and accessibility to healthcare services in nigeria’. He was a recipient of the Federal Government of nigeria’s Scholarship Award.

Dennis Mwaniki - dmwaniki@gora4people.org

Mr. Dennis Mwaniki is the Associate Director for urban Planning & GiS in GorA Corp. he has more than seven year’s hands-on experience in the fields of urban planning, Geographic information Systems and environmental management. Since the inception of GorA Corp in July 2014, Mr. Mwaniki has been respon-sible for providing technical assistance to partner governments and local au-thorities to contextualize and set up observatories linking research to Action (orAs), which are the institutional homes for development of urban indicators; and for training on and administering the urbaninfo open data platform. He is a member of the Global Human Settlements Working Group of the Group on Earth observations (GHS WG) and is actively involved in the ongoing development of

the openCities institute. Prior to joining GorA Corp, Mr. Mwaniki worked for 3.5 years as a GiS and research consultant in the Global urban observatory (Guo) and the Best Practices Section of un-Habitat. in Guo, he developed and implemented the methodology for calculating the amount of land allocated to streets for over 100 cities, administrated the urbaninfo open data software, and contributed to the State of the World’s Cities report: Prosperity of Cities in 2012-13. He also worked as GiS and urban planning consultant with the Slum Dwellers international - Kenya; the Center for urban research and innovations at the university of nairobi; and various private companies based in nairobi. Mr. Mwaniki’s research interests are on the integration of GiSs and other iCts in urban planning, smart city growth, housing and urban environmental management. He holds a Master of Arts degree in Environmental Planning and Management and a Bachelor of Arts degree in urban and regional Planning.

Gora Mboup - gmboup@gora4people.org

Dr. Gora Mboup is the President and CEo of GorA Corp after more than 25 years of international development experience as a coordinator of the Demographic and Health Survey Programme implemented by orC Macro (uSA) and funded by uSAiD for ten years, and as a Senior Demographer and the Chief of the Global urban observatory, un-Habitat for another 10 years. in June 2014, in an agreed separation, Dr. Mboup moved from being a staff of un-Habitat to found GorA Corp, a partner of the united nations, aiming to champion the people agenda, an agenda by the people for the people. un-Habitat honored him with a plaque “in recognition of ten years of distinguished and dedicated service to the united nations”. in un-Habitat, Dr. Mboup authored a landmark urban planning book

“Street as Public Spaces and Drivers of urban Prosperity” in 2013 based on the use of remote sensing and GiS data to analyze urban land use; three important indices, key for sustainable urbanization: the Composite Stre-et Connectivity index (CSCi) in 2013, the City Prosperity index (CPi) in 2012, and the slum indicator in 2003. Dr. Mboup also co-authored “Monitoring Security of tenure in Cities: People, Land and Policies” in 2011 and four series of the State of the World’s Cities reports launched at World urban Forums: Prosperity of Cities in 2012/13, Bridging the urban Divide in 2010/11, Harmonious Cities in 2008/09, and thirty Years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda in 2006/07. in GorA Corp, he introduced three indices: Sustainable, inclusive Prospe-rous City index (SiPCi), Sustainable City Foundation index (SCFi) and the Multiple Slum index (MCi) – People, Places and Policies. Dr. Mboup holds a Ph.D. in Demography, a Masters degree in Statistics, a Bachelors Degree in economics and a first degree in mathematics and Physics.

33

Deepti Jayakrishnan - deepti.jay@gmail.com

Deepti is passionate about anticipating and responding to risk and critical eco-nomic need in conflict and post-conflicturban environments. She has helped clients in Liberia, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka, Myanmar navigate and incorporate into corporate strategy, the legal, regulatory and political risks and opportunities in tough markets. She visited rawabi during a ten day visit to israel & Palestine in March 2015, as one of 50 ‘present and future business leaders’ from tufts uni-versity to study entrepreneurship in constrained environments. She is Manager (Legal & regulatory) for a market leader in telecom infrastructu-re in Myanmar. Her prior experience includes working as researcher at the Su-preme Court of india, as assistant in-house counsel for a dominant player in the

indian vehicle- finance market, instructor for international law at Tufts Department of Political Science, and consulting independently as political risk advisor to top risk advisory firms in New york and San Francisco.She holds a B.A. LLB (Honors) from W.B. national university of Juridical Sciences, M.A in Law and Diplomacy focusing on international Business in Emerging Markets from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts university and a certificate in international Commercial arbitration from Centre for Transnational law, university of Cologne.

Omondi Odhiambo - odhiambo@gora4people.org

Dr. omondi odhiambo is the regional Coordinator of GorA Corp in Africa based in nairobi, Kenya. He will also oversee the coordination of the openCities institu-te in Africa. Dr. odhiambo has more than 30 years of international development experience in the fields of demography, monitoring, evaluation and sustainable urban development. in october 2014, he retired from un-Habitat where he was a Senior Demographer in the Global urban observatory responsible for coordi-nating the production of urban indicators for monitoring of the Habitat Agenda and the MDGs.During his tenure in un-Habitat, Dr. odhiambo coordinated the implementation of urban inequities Survey in 17 secondary urban centres in the Lake Victoria region of Kenya, uganda and tanzania for the Lake Victoria region

Water and Sanitation initiative in 2006-08 and 7 urban centres in Zanzibar for the Google h2.0 Monitoring Services to inform and Empower initiative in 2009-10; coordinated the collection, processing and homogeni-zation of global databases for building a Global Exposure Database for Global Earthquake Model Foundation (GED4GEM) in 2010-13; coordinated the statistics for the State of the World’s Cities report: Prosperity of Cities in 2012-13; and coordinated the processing, analysis and production of a joint publication between un-Habitat and unAiDS detailing HiV in Cities in 2013-14. Before joining un-Habitat in 2005, Dr. odhiambo worked with leading research organizations such as the Family Health international and Kenya Medical rese-arch institute and consulted for leading donor agencies such as GtZ, uSAiD, DFiD, JiCA, DAniDA, AMrEF, Care international, JHPiEGo, among others. Dr. odhiambo holds a Ph.D. in urban and regional Planning, a Master of Science degree in Demography, a Master of Arts degree in Geography (population studies), and a Bachelor of Arts degree in Geography and History.

raWabi - PaleSTiNe

Ayesha Patel - ayeshapatel3@gmail.com

ayesha has both private and Non-profit-Public-Private partnership experience. Her work has predominantly been in her home country of the uK and also in asia Pacific; specifically in Corporate responsibility, Strategy andbusiness Development, and Education programme development with relationship Ma-nagement. Ayesha spent the summers of 2014 and 2015 working on strategy development at rawabi, the first planned city in Palestine, focusing on attracting forei-gn investment and creating jobs in order to spur the development of the Palestinian economy and contribute to peace-building efforts in the region. Shecontinues to support the rawabi project on a freelance basis.

Ayesha Patel has recently completed a Master in Business at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy,

34

Ankit Kumar - ankit.bgp@gmail.com

Ankit has keen interest in technology and Management. He wants to facilitate the benefits of the technological innovation and advancement to the bottom of pyramid.Ankit aims to leverage his quantitative and analytical skills along with his information technology industry experience to build a strong competency in international business practices and a deep understanding of the global business context. He is currently working for a Data Analytics startup that helps Pharma-ceutical companies to enable analytics and achieve operational excellence.Ankit has visited rawabi as part of a consulting and research assignment. He has interacted with representatives of Palestine it Association, international Development organizations and CEos of various companies in West Bank to un-

derstand the motivations and inhibitors of doing business in West Bank.Ankitholds a Master of international Business degree from the Fletcher School, tufts university.

tufts university, where she focused on Strategic Management and international Consulting, and the Mid-dle East. She holdsa First Class Honours BA from the university of Sussex, and a MA in international Studies and Diplomacy from SoAS (university of London). She speaks French, Spanish, Gujarati, Hindi and is currently learning Arabic.

Smart Economy in Smart Cities