your rights matter: police stops (fundamental rights survey)

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YOUR RIGHTS MATTER: POLICE STOPS―

1II

Citation note: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (2021), Your rights matter: Police stops, Fundamental Rights Survey, Luxembourg, Publications Office.

© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2021

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.

Neither the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights nor any person acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that might be made of the following information.

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021

PRINT ISBN 978-92-9461-336-3 doi:10.2811/20196 TK-09-21-058-EN-C

PDF ISBN 978-92-9461-335-6 doi:10.2811/246780 TK-09-21-058-EN-N

Photo credits:

Cover page: © SOPA Images/Getty ImagesPage 3: © Gwengoat/iStockPage 4: © Frederic Legrand - COMEO /ShutterstockPage 6: © SOPA Images/Getty ImagesPage 14: © Jens Rother/iStockPage 16: © SOPA Images/Getty Images1: © Gennaro Leonardi/iStockPage 24: © LOUISA GOULIAMAKI/BELGA/AFPPage 26: © Anadolu/Getty Images

1II

Country codes

AT Austria

BE Belgium

BG Bulgaria

CY Cyprus

CZ Czechia

DE Germany

DK Denmark

EE Estonia

EL Greece

ES Spain

FI Finland

FR France

HR Croatia

HU Hungary

IE Ireland

IT Italy

LT Lithuania

LU Luxembourg

LV Latvia

MK North Macedonia

MT Malta

NL Netherlands

PL Poland

PT Portugal

RO Romania

SE Sweden

SI Slovenia

SK Slovakia

UK United Kingdom

Abbreviations used in figures

NOAFR Immigrants and descendants of immigrants from North Africa

RIMGR Recent immigrants from non-EU countries

ROMA Roma minority

RUSMIN Russian minority

(S)ASIA Immigrants and descendants of immigrants from South Asia and Asia

SSAFR Immigrants and descendants of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa

TUR Immigrants and descendants of immigrants from Turkey

32

Contents

EXPERIENCES OF BEING STOPPED BY THE POLICE .................................................................................................... 7

ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE POLICE DURING STOPS ..................................................................................................... 14

PERCEPTION OF POLICE BEHAVIOUR DURING STOPS ............................................................................................. 16

PERCEPTION ON POLICE TREATING PEOPLE GENERALLY WITH RESPECT ............................................................... 21

PERCEPTION OF PROFILING IN POLICE STOPS EXPERIENCED BY IMMIGRANTS AND ETHNIC MINORITIES ............ 24

32

The police may legitimately stop people for a variety of reasons, ranging from random traffic controls and events relating to public order or security to an individual matching a suspect’s description.

But discriminatory profiling – where, for example, race or ethnicity is the police’s sole basis for stopping someone – is unlawful. It also diminishes trust in the police among individuals or groups who perceive that they are disproportionately targeted.

How often people are stopped by the police, what happens during the stop, the outcome of the stop, as well as the nature of each stop – including whether people feel treated respectfully – is increasingly coming under scrutiny in relation to the policing of minority groups.

PREVENTING UNLAWFUL PROFILING: A GUIDE

This FRA guide defines what is meant by profiling in the work of law enforcement and border management, and outlines the principles and practices that reduce the risk of unlawful profiling. The guide also looks at the use of algorithmic profiling in law enforcement and border-management operations, and at ways to minimise the related risks in terms of discrimination as well as people’s privacy and data protection.

For more information, see FRA (2018), Preventing unlawful profiling today and in the future, Publications Office.

HANDBOOK

Preventing unlawful profiling today and in the future:

a guide

Preventing unlawful profiling today and in the future: a guide

FRA

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2018/preventing-unlawful-profiling-today-and-future-guide

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2018/preventing-unlawful-profiling-today-and-future-guide

Comparing different societal groups’ experiences with police stops helps to identify potential patterns. For example:

• whether certain groups are stopped disproportionally more often compared with the population as a whole;

• whether what happens during a stop is different for certain groups in society than for the population in general; and

• how respectfully different groups feel they are treated by the police.

This paper – Your rights matter: Police stops, Fundamental Rights Survey – presents selected data from FRA’s Fundamental Rights Survey (‘FRS’), comparing the results for the general population to those for people with an ethnic minority or immigrant background. The latter are based on FRA’s second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (‘EU-MIDIS II’) and the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019 (‘RTS’). The results of these surveys are analysed more extensively in previous FRA reports referred to in the box on ‘Data sources’.

Specifically, this paper examines:

• the prevalence of being stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey;

• the situations in which people were stopped (during the most recent stop) – such as when using a vehicle (including cars, bikes, and others), when walking around, or on public transport;

• the action taken by the police when stopping people (during the most recent stop) – such as asking for identity papers or searching the person or their vehicle;

• views on whether or not the police were respectful (during the most recent stop); and

• the extent to which the police are perceived as generally treating people with respect.

5

The last section provides selected results from EU-MIDIS II and the RTS on:

• whether respondents felt that the decision to stop them was based on their ethnic or immigrant background (during the most recent stop in the five years before the survey); and

• the level of trust in police, disaggregated by the experiences of being stopped by the police (including police stops with perceived ethnic profiling).

The data presented make it possible for the first time to compare, across all EU Member States, experiences of police stops by the general population and by selected immigrant and ethnic minority groups.Drawing on data from the Fundamental Rights Survey, this paper also explores differences in the rates of police stops for selected socio-demographic groups, the type of stops experienced and people’s views on the extent to which the police treated them respectfully.

Comparison and presentation of results

The survey questions are indicated in the notes under each figure. Their wording is comparable, despite small differences in wording between the surveys. In terms of comparisons between surveys, it is important to note the different time intervals for data collection: the Fundamental Rights Survey was conducted between January and October 2019, the Roma and Travellers Survey from December 2018 to July 2019, and EU-MIDIS II between September 2015 and November 2016.

Denoting results based on small number of cases

In a few cases, the results presented in the figures are based on a small number of cases in the data set. For example, when the rate of police stops is low for a particular group of respondents, there are few cases available for analysing the context and outcome of these stops.

Results based on 20 to 49 unweighted cases in a group total are placed in parenthesis. Results are not published if they would be based on fewer than 20 unweighted observations in the group total.

Presenting Fundamental Rights Survey data

When disaggregating the results of the Fundamental Rights Survey by socio-economic and other characteristics, some of the respondent categories can be small in the data set. The results for such categories may not be reliable due to the small number of respondents in these categories. For this reason, this paper examines these disaggregated results only at the EU level.

Fundamental Rights Survey: outputs

The results of FRA’s Fundamental Rights Survey are published in reports, papers, and an online data explorer tool.The report Crime, Safety and Victims’ Rights, published in 2021, provides an overview of people’s experiences of violence, harassment, and selected property crimes in the EU. The report also looks at the rate of reporting these crimes to the police, to assess the volume of incidents that are not captured by official statistics on recorded crime. Other results presented include people’s willingness to take action when they witness a crime, and perceptions on personal safety and the need to adopt risk-avoidance measures to avoid being assaulted or harassed.

The report What Do Fundamental Rights Mean for People in the EU?, was published in 2020. It examines people’s opinions about human rights – or ‘fundamental rights’ as they are called in the internal context of the EU – their views and perceptions on the

functioning of democratic societies, and their thoughts on and engagement with public services that have a duty to enforce human rights law and to protect people’s rights.

Summaries of both reports will be translated into a number of EU languages and will be published on FRA’s website in 2021.

In addition, FRA issued two papers in 2020 drawing on specific Fundamental Rights Survey results:

• Your Rights Matter: Data protection and privacy

• Your Rights Matter: Security concerns and experiences

The interactive online data explorer offers the opportunity to browse results by question, country by country, and disaggregated by key socio-demographic characteristics – such as gender, age and education.

FRA will make an anonymised survey data set (microdata) publicly available to facilitate further analysis by academia, interested organisations and researchers.

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2021/fundamental-rights-survey-crime

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/fundamental-rights-survey-trust

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/fundamental-rights-survey-trust

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/fundamental-rights-survey-data-protection

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/fundamental-rights-survey-security

7

EXPERIENCES OF BEING STOPPED BY THE POLICE

MAIN RESULTS Ë Overall, 14 % of people in the EU were stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey. Meanwhile,

27 % experienced this in the five years before the survey (FRS).

Ë The rate of being stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey varies across EU countries. It ranges from 4 % in Spain and 7 % in both Malta and Romania, to 21 % in Ireland, 24 % in Estonia, and 25 % in Austria (FRS). (See Figure 1.)

Ë Breaking down results from the FRS at the EU aggregate level shows that police stops more often concern men, young people, as well as people who self-identify as belonging to an ethnic minority, who are Muslim, or who are not heterosexual. (See Figures 2 and 3.)

• For example, 21 % of 16-29-year-olds in the EU-27 were stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey, compared with 6 % of people aged 65 and over. Out of people who consider themselves to be part of an ethnic minority, 22 % in EU-27 were stopped by the police in the 12 months before the survey, as opposed to 13 % of people who do not consider themselves to be part of an ethnic minority.

• An earlier survey into the specific experiences of people with immigrant or ethnic minority background (EU-MIDIS II) reveals that 15 % of minorities experienced police stops. The results for immigrants and ethnic minorities vary more – by country and by group – than do the results of the FRS for the general population across countries.

Ë For example, in the 12 months before the survey, 49 % of immigrants and descendants of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa were stopped by the police in Austria, as were 33 % of Roma in both Croatia and Greece. By contrast, 4 % of Roma in Bulgaria, 3 % of immigrants and descendants of immigrants from (South) Asian in the United Kingdom, and 2 % of Roma in Romania were stopped in the year before the survey (EU-MIDIS II). (See Figure 1.)

Ë People’s experiences also differ in terms of the contexts in which they are stopped. For example, for the general population (FRS) in Greece and Austria, most police stops (94 % and 87 %, respectively) happened when people were driving, on a bike, or using another vehicle, as opposed to police stopping them while on foot or in another situation. By contrast, 78 % of immigrants and descendants of immigrants from South Asia in Greece and 72 % of immigrants and descendants of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa in Austria who were stopped by the police experienced this while moving on foot (EU-MIDIS II). (See Figure 1.)

Ë The context for a police stop can affect the way people experience them. Perceptions of profiling may be less common when people are stopped while driving because this is more likely to involve random checks unrelated to the personal characteristics of the person being stopped. The results presented in this paper show differences in actions taken by the police during the stops as well as people’s perceptions on police treating them respectfully when they were stopped, depending on the situation in which the police stop occurred.

Ë Other factors also need to be considered. For example, in some countries the proportion of those belonging to minority ethnic groups who use a private car may be lower than that of the general population. This might partly explain why they experience fewer vehicle stops and more stops while walking or using public transport.

98

FIGURE 1: BEING STOPPED BY THE POLICE, IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY – GENERAL POPULATION AVERAGE (FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS SURVEY) – AND BY MINORITY GROUPS SURVEYED (EU-MIDIS II AND ROMA AND TRAVELLERS SURVEY 2019) (%) a,b,c,d,e

2549

22

1817

132120

164

2029

1915

171617

111213

249

1833

26

414

32

1922

1719

1516

1933

1022

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

AT - General populationAT - SSAFR

AT - TUR

BE - General populationBE - NOAFR

BE - TURBE - ROMA

BE - Caravan dwellers

BG - General populationBG - ROMA

CY - General populationCY - ASIA

CZ - General populationCZ - ROMA

DE - General populationDE - SSAFR

DE - TUR

DK - General populationDK - SSAFR

DK - TUR

EE - General populationEE - RUSMIN

EL - General populationEL - ROMAEL - SASIA

ES - General populationES - NOAFRES - ROMA

FI - General populationFI - SSAFR

FR - General populationFR - NOAFRFR - SSAFR

FR - Travellers (Gens du voyage)

HR - General populationHR - ROMA

HU - General populationHU - ROMA

98

2112

25

1221

1113

208

1715

1911

75

1020

1529

13

128

1619

12

72

1377

22

2013

1812

14

33

510

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

IE - General populationIE - SSAFR

IE - Travellers

IT - General populationIT - NOAFRIT - SASIAIT - SSAFR

LT - General populationLT - RUSMIN

LU - General populationLU - SSAFR

LV - General populationLV - RUSMIN

MT - General populationMT - SSAFR

NL - General populationNL - NOAFR

NL - TUR

PL - General populationPL - RIMGR

PT - General populationPT - ROMAPT - SSAFR

RO - General populationRO - ROMA

SE - General populationSE - SSAFR

SI - General populationSI - RIMGR

SK - General populationSK - ROMA

NL - ROMANL - Travellers and Sinti

SE - TURSE - Roma and travellers

MK - General population

UK - General populationUK - SASIAUK - SSAFR

UK - Gypsies and travellers

1110

875

89

7842

7437

(88)

87(57)

9771

7335

7750

76

7871

86

84(80)

9479

17

(54)52

41

8481

7770

5078

9275

8258

372

10

1253

2362

(10)

8(34)

225

1563

1340

18

1024

9

8(18)

521

78

(35)45

55

613

1825

4313

519

1540

922

1

10521

(2)

3(5)

13

122

910

6

1116

7(2)

2

4

(11)34

106

6589

35

32

0 20 40 60 80 100

Stopped while in a vehicle

Stopped while on foot

OtherDon’t know, refused, doesn’t understand the question


AT - TUR

BE - General populationBE - NOAFR

BE - TURBE - ROMA

BE - Caravan dwellers

BG - General populationBG - ROMA

CY - General populationCY - ASIA

CZ - General populationCZ - ROMA

DE - General populationDE - SSAFR

DE - TUR

DK - General populationDK - SSAFR

DK - TUR

EE - General populationEE - RUSMIN

EL - General populationEL - ROMAEL - SASIA

ES - General populationES - NOAFRES - ROMA

FI - General populationFI - SSAFR

FR - General populationFR - NOAFRFR - SSAFR


HR - General populationHR - ROMA

HU - General populationHU - ROMA

8990

69

9141

6242

81(83)

7728

83(75)

82

7932

5759

72

85(78)

956665

72(27)

78(59)

(75)65

8778

7738

85

(28)(38)(42)

44

1027

655

3857

9(5)

965

7(22)

10

957

403818

8

433

30

25(47)

11(35)

(20)33

89

1848

9

(36)(20)(27)

28

10

4

33

1

8

147

10

8

1211

32

10

7

15

2(19)

11(6)(6)

2

613

411

6

(36)(42)

(32)27

0 20 40 60 80 100





IE - Travellers







NL - TUR












(11)

(4)

(22)

1

1

n.p.

Notes: a Fundamental Rights Survey: Out of all respondents in the EU-27, North Macedonia and the United Kingdom (n = 34,948); weighted results. EU-MIDIS II: Out of all respondents (n=25,515); weighted results. RTS: Out of all respondents (n = 4,659); weighted results.

b The questions asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey were ‘In the past 5 years, have you ever been stopped, searched or questioned by the police in [this country], for any reason? Did this happen to you in the past 12 months?’ The answer categories were ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, while people could also indicate ‘Don’t know’ or ‘Prefer not to say’. Those who had been stopped by the police were asked ‘Thinking of the last time you were stopped by the police in [this country], were you in a car, on a motorbike or bicycle, on public transport or just walking? The answer categories were ‘In a car, van or truck’, ‘On a motorbike (including moped)’, ‘On a bicycle’, ‘In public transport (bus, tram, train, underground, etc.), ‘Walking’, ‘Other’, ‘Prefer not to say’ and ‘Don’t know’. The results for EU-MIDIS II survey and the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019 are based on a similar question and answer categories.

1110

8990

69

9141

6242

81(83)

7728

83(75)

82

7932

5759

72

85(78)

956665

72(27)

78(59)

(75)65

8778

7738

85

(28)(38)(42)

44

1027

655

3857

9(5)

965

7(22)

10

957

403818

8

433

30

25(47)

11(35)

(20)33

89

1848

9

(36)(20)(27)

28

10

4

33

1

8

147

10

8

1211

32

10

7

15

2(19)

11(6)(6)

2

613

411

6

(36)(42)

(32)27

0 20 40 60 80 100





IE - Travellers







NL - TUR












(11)

(4)

(22)

1

1

n.p.

c Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Thus, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations in a group total are noted in parentheses. Results based on fewer than 20 unweighted observations in a group total are not published (n.p.).

d Acronyms for target groups refer to immigrants from country/region and their descendants, and other minority groups as follows: TUR = Turkey, SSAFR = Sub-Saharan Africa, NOAFR = North Africa, (S)ASIA = South Asia and Asia, RIMGR = recent immigrants from non-EU countries, RUSMIN = Russian minority, ROMA = Roma minority.

e North Macedonia was not included in EU-MIDIS II survey or in the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019, and therefore results are only available for the general population (Fundamental Rights Survey).

Source: FRA, Fundamental Rights Survey 2019 [Data collection in cooperation with CBS (NL), CTIE (LU) and Statistics Austria (AT)]; RTS 2019; EU-MIDIS II 2016

8990

69

9141

6242

81(83)

7728

83(75)

82

7932

5759

72

85(78)

956665

72(27)

78(59)

(75)65

8778

7738

85

(28)(38)(42)

44

1027

655

3857

9(5)

965

7(22)

10

957

403818

8

433

30

25(47)

11(35)

(20)33

89

1848

9

(36)(20)(27)

28

10

4

33

1

8

147

10

8

1211

32

10

7

15

2(19)

11(6)(6)

2

613

411

6

(36)(42)

(32)27

0 20 40 60 80 100





IE - Travellers







NL - TUR












(11)

(4)

(22)

1

1

n.p.

1312

FIGURE 2: BEING STOPPED BY THE POLICE, IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, GENERAL POPULATION, BROKEN DOWN BY SELECTED SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (EU-27, %) a,b

10

18

21

17

15

11

6

11

15

15

17

18

5

15

9

16

13

14

13

17

6

19

12

14

13

15

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Women

Men

16-29

30-44

45-54

55-64

65+

Lower secondary or less

Upper secondary, or post secondary but not tertiary

Tertiary

Employed or self-employed

Unemployed

Retired

Student, pupil

Other

With (great) difficulty

With some difficulty

Fairly easily

(Very) easily

Salaries, self-employed, farming

Pensions

Unemployment benefits, social benefits

Other

Big city (incl. suburbs)

A town or a small city

A country village or home in the countryside

Gend

erAg

e

High

est l

evel

of

edu

catio

nco

mpl

eted

Mai

n ac

tivity

(cur

rent

situ

atio

n)Ho

useh

old’

s ab

ility

to

mak

e en

ds m

eet

Hous

ehol

d’s

mai

nso

urce

of i

ncom

eTy

oe o

f are

a

Graph 2

Notes: a Out of all respondents in the EU-27 (n = 32,537); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘In the past 5 years, have you ever been stopped, searched or questioned by the police in [this country], for any reason? Did this happen to you in the past 12 months?’ The answer categories were ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, while people could also indicate ‘Don’t know’ or ‘Prefer not to say’.

Source: FRA, Fundamental Rights Survey 2019 [Data collection in cooperation with CBS (NL), CTIE (LU) and Statistics Austria (AT)]

1312

FIGURE 3: BEING STOPPED BY THE POLICE, IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, GENERAL POPULATION, BROKEN DOWN BY SELECTED GROUPS (EU 27, %) a,b

17

13

14

14

13

11

14

17

22

13

14

20

16

13

20

18

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Severly limited

Limited but not severly

Not limited at all

Born in the survey country

Born in another EU Member State

Born in a non-EU country

Citizen of the survey country

Not a citizen of the survey country

Yes

No

Heterosexual

Not heterosexual

No religion

Christian

Muslim

Other religion

Expe

rienc

ing

limita

tions

inac

tiviti

espe

ople

us

ually

do

Coun

try

ofbi

rth

Wet

her

or n

ot a

pers

on is

aci

tizen

of

the

surv

eyco

untr

y

Self-

iden

tifyi

ngas

a p

art o

fan

eth

nic

min

ority

Sexu

alor

ient

atio

nRe

ligio

n

Graph 3Notes: a Out of all respondents in the EU-27 (n = 32,537); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘In the past 5 years, have you ever been stopped, searched or questioned by the police in [this country], for any reason? Did this happen to you in the past 12 months?’ The answer categories were ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, while people could also indicate ‘Don’t know’ or ‘Prefer not to say’.


ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE POLICE DURING STOPS

MAIN RESULTS Ë People with an ethnic minority or an immigrant background experience more often stops that involve the

police searching them or their vehicle, compared with the general population (EU-MIDIS II and FRS). (See Figure 4.)

Ë For example, police performed a search on 34 % of people with an ethnic minority or immigrant background who were stopped while moving on foot, compared with 14 % of people in the general population without such a background (EU-MIDIS II and FRS).

Ë People with an ethnic minority or an immigrant background were more often asked for identity papers than were people from the general population who were stopped, either when walking or when in a vehicle (EU-MIDIS II and FRS).

15

FIGURE 4: ACTION TAKEN BY POLICE DURING MOST RECENT STOP, BY TYPE OF SITUATION WHEN STOPPED BY THE POLICE, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS SURVEY (GENERAL POPULATION) AND EU-MIDIS II (MINORITY GROUPS) (%) a,b

35

45

77

7

11

27

13

1

0

2

45

60

79

21

16

17

19

3

1

4

0 20 40 60 80 100

Asked you questions

Asked for your identity papers - ID card/passport/residence permit

Asked for driving licenceor vehicle documents

Searched you or the car/vehicle

Gave some advice or warnedyou about your behaviour

Did an alcohol or drug test

Fined you

Arrested you/took youto a police station

Took money or somethingfrom you in the form of a bribe

Other


EU-MIDIS II

Graph 4

FRS

54

65

3

14

5

5

5

5

1

9

61

78

5

34

3

4

4

7

0

6

0 20 40 60 80 100


EU-MIDIS II

Asked you questions

Asked for your identity papers - ID card/passport/residence permit

Asked for driving licenceor vehicle documents

Searched you or the car/vehicle

Gave some advice or warnedyou about your behaviour

Did an alcohol or drug test

Fined you

Arrested you/took youto a police station

Took money or somethingfrom you in the form of a bribe

Other

FRS

Notes: a Out of all respondents who had been stopped by the police in the five years before the survey. Fundamental Rights Survey, EU-27: (n = 9,775); EU-MIDIS II: (n = 6,757); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘The last time you were stopped, what did the police actually do?’ The answer categories were as shown above, except for answer categories ‘Police did not do anything’, ‘Prefer not to say’ and ‘Don’t know’, which have been excluded. The results for EU-MIDIS II survey are based on a similar question and answer categories as shown above.

Source: FRA, Fundamental Rights Survey 2019 [Data collection in cooperation with CBS (NL), CTIE (LU) and Statistics Austria (AT)]; EU-MIDIS II 2016

PERCEPTION OF POLICE BEHAVIOUR DURING STOPS

MAIN RESULTS Ë Some 80 % of people in the EU-27 felt that the police treated them respectfully during the most recent

incident when they were stopped while in a vehicle. Fewer people felt that the police was respectful when they were stopped while on foot (60 %) (FRS). (See Figure 5.)

Ë For both types of stops – while in a vehicle or on foot – fewer respondents with an ethnic minority or immigrant background felt that the police treated them respectfully. For example, 46 % of people with an ethnic minority or an immigrant background felt that the police treated them respectfully the last time they were stopped while on foot (EU-MIDIS II). (See Figure 5.)

Ë Perceptions on whether or not the police was respectful vary by country and group, when comparing the results for the general population (FRS) with those for selected immigrant and ethnic minority groups from EU MIDIS II, and the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019. (See Figure 6.)

Ë For example, the biggest differences in the perception that the police was respectful during the most recent stop can be found in:

• Sweden, where 30 % of Roma and Travellers (RTS) considered that the police behaved respectfully, compared with 84 % of the general population (FRS);

• Italy, where 29 % of immigrants and descendants of immigrants from North Africa considered that the police behaved respectfully, compared with 86 % of the general population;

• the Netherlands, where 3 % of Roma felt that the police was respectful during the most recent stop, compared to 76 % of the general population; and

• Portugal, where 10 % Roma perceived the police to have behaved respectfully, compared to 92 % of the general population.

Ë Moreover, where two or more immigrant and ethnic minority groups were interviewed in the same country, differences can be identified in the experiences of these groups, as shown in Figure 6.

FIGURE 5: PERCEPTION OF POLICE BEING RESPECTFUL OR NOT DURING MOST RECENT STOP, BY TYPE OF SITUATION WHEN STOPPED BY THE POLICE, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS SURVEY AND EU-MIDIS II (%) a,b

80

65

60

46

13

20

20

33

7

14

20

21

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

FRS

EU-MIDIS II

FRS

EU-MIDIS II

Stop

ped

whi

le in

a v

ehic

leSt

oppe

d w

hile

on

foot

Respectful Neither respectful nor disrespectful

Disrespectful Don’t know or prefer not to say

Graph 5

Notes: a Out of all respondents who had been stopped by the police in the five years before the survey. Fundamental Rights Survey: EU-27 (n = 10,136); EU-MIDIS II (n = 6,757); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘The last time you were stopped, how respectful were the police when dealing with you?’ In the figure above, the answer categories ‘Very respectful’ and ‘Fairly respectful’ are combined into ‘Respectful’, and the answer categories ‘Fairly disrespectful’ and ‘Very disrespectful’ have been combined into ‘Disrespectful’. The type of situation where the police stop occurred was asked using the question ‘Thinking of the last time you were stopped by the police in [this country], were you in a car, on a motorbike or bicycle, on public transport or just walking?’ In the figure above the answer categories have been combined as follows: ‘In a car, van or truck’, ‘On a motorbike (including moped), and ‘On a bicycle’ have been combined into ‘Stopped while in a vehicle’, and ‘In public transport (bus, tram, train, underground, etc.)’ and ‘Walking’ have been combined into ‘Stopped while on foot’. The results for EU-MIDIS II survey are based on a similar question and answer categories as those used in the Fundamental Rights Survey.

Source: FRA, Fundamental Rights Survey 2019 [Data collection in cooperation with CBS (NL), CTIE (LU) and Statistics Austria (AT)]; EU-MIDIS II 2016

17

1918

FIGURE 6: PERCEPTION OF POLICE BEING RESPECTFUL OR NOT DURING MOST RECENT POLICE STOP, FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS SURVEY, EU-MIDIS II, AND ROMA AND TRAVELLERS SURVEY 2019 (%) a,b,c,d,e

76

28

66

77

47

71

67

(46)

90

65

68

74

80

35

73

55

61

74

33

59

80

(69)

77

46

50

58

59

53

85

65

74

61

64

49

81

60

79

73

16

42

18

12

32

19

21

(33)

7

20

20

21

13

36

16

29

29

19

36

19

12

(24)

18

27

33

26

26

22

9

17

16

17

21

28

10

17

4

12

8

29

16

11

21

10

12

(19)

2

14

12

5

7

28

12

16

9

7

30

22

7

(6)

5

27

15

16

15

26

6

17

10

21

15

23

8

23

17

15

0 20 40 60 80 100

Respectful Neither respectful, nor disrespectful

Disrespectful Don’t know, refused, doesn’t understand the question


AT - TUR

BE - General population

BE - NOAFR

BE - TUR

BE - ROMABE - Caravan dwellers

BG - General population

BG - ROMA

CY - General population

CY - ASIA

CZ - General population

CZ - ROMA

DE - General population

DE - SSAFR

DE - TUR

DK - General population

DK - SSAFR

DK - TUR

EE - General population

EE - RUSMIN

EL - General population

EL - ROMA

EL - SASIA

ES - General population

ES - NOAFR

ES - ROMA

FI - General population

FI - SSAFR

FR - General population

FR - NOAFRFR - SSAFR


HR - General population

HR - ROMA

HU - General population

HU - ROMA

1918

7971

53

8629

6051

7491

7062

6174

90(57)

7643

473

50

7485

9210

47

7246

8460

7330

8794

7739

69

7146

5940

814

17

856

3437

159

1917

2920

6(8)

1313

193

15

1410

525

35

2131

912

920

42

1930

12

1132

2715

1215

29

6

15

6

12

10

11

21

10

7

4

(35)

10

43

33

9435

12

3

3

66

19

7

21

7

28

18

49

9

4

30

18

18

22

14

45

0 20 40 60 80 100

Respectful Neither respectful, nor disrespectful

Disrespectful Don’t know, refused, doesn’t understand the question


IE - Travellers

IT - General population

IT - NOAFR

IT - SASIA

IT - SSAFR

LT - General population

LT - RUSMIN

LU - General population

LU - SSAFR

LV - General population

LV - RUSMIN

MT - General population

MT - SSAFR

NL - General population

NL - NOAFR

NL - TUR

PL - General population

PL - RIMGR

PT - General population

PT - ROMA

PT - SSAFR

RO - General population

RO - ROMA

SE - General population

SE - SSAFR

SI - General population

SI - RIMGR

SK - General population

SK - ROMA

NL - ROMA

NL - Travellers and Sinti

SE - TUR

SE - Roma and travellers


UK - General population

UK - SASIA

UK - SSAFR


3

20

Notes: a Out of all respondents who had been stopped by the police in the five years before the survey. Fundamental Rights Survey: EU-27, North Macedonia and the United Kingdom (n = 10,136); EU-MIDIS II (n = 6,787); RTS (n = 1,274); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘The last time you were stopped, how respectful were the police when dealing with you?’ The answer categories were as shown in the figure above, while answer categories ‘Very respectful’ and ‘Fairly respectful’ have been combined into ‘Respectful’, and the answer categories ‘Fairly disrespectful’ and ‘Very disrespectful’ have been combined into ‘Disrespectful’. The results for EU-MIDIS II survey and the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019 are based on a similar question and answer categories as those used in the Fundamental Rights Survey.

c Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Thus, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations in a group total are noted in parentheses. Results based on fewer than 20 unweighted observations in a group total are not published.


e North Macedonia was not included in EU-MIDIS II survey or in the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019, and therefore results are only available for the general population (Fundamental Rights Survey)

Source: FRA, Fundamental Rights Survey 2019 [Data collection in cooperation with CBS (NL), CTIE (LU) and Statistics Austria (AT)]; RTS 2019; EU-MIDIS II 2016

PERCEPTION ON POLICE TREATING PEOPLE GENERALLY WITH RESPECT

MAIN RESULTSThe Fundamental Rights Survey also asked people whether they believe that the police generally treats people with respect. The results indicate that:

Ë The majority (65 %) in the EU-27 think that the police generally treats people with respect ‘frequently’ or ‘always’. But the results vary considerably between countries (FRS) ranging from 86 % to 89 % in Finland, Sweden and Denmark to 37 % in Slovakia, 47 % in Bulgaria and 48 % in Romania. (See Figure 7.)

Ë At country level, the perception that the police generally treats people with respect ’frequently’ or ’always’ is positively correlated with people’s readiness to call the police when witnessing a crime (FRS).1

Ë The perception that the police generally treats people with respect is more widespread among certain groups. These include older people, those who make ends meet easily with their current household income, people who don’t consider themselves as belonging to an ethnic minority, as well as those who identify as Christian or as having no religion (FRS). (See Figures 8 and 9.)

1 Pearson correlation coefficient r = .696. That is, at the country level, the more widespread the perception that police generally treats people with respect in the country, the higher the readiness people show to call the police when witnessing crime. Results concerning people’s readiness to call the police when witnessing a crime are analysed in more detail in FRA’s 2021 report ‘Crime, Safety and Victims’ Rights’.

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2021/fundamental-rights-survey-crime

2322

FIGURE 7: GENERAL POPULATION – PERCEPTION ON HOW OFTEN POLICE GENERALLY TREAT PEOPLE WITH RESPECT IN THE COUNTRY (%) a,b

65

89

86

86

82

75

74

74

73

73

72

70

69

68

66

65

65

60

59

58

58

53

52

51

48

48

47

37

75

33

23

7

10

9

14

16

18

17

16

19

24

22

22

21

25

23

17

26

29

26

34

27

36

32

32

30

29

34

20

32

11

3

4

4

3

9

8

8

10

7

3

7

9

10

8

11

15

13

12

12

7

16

9

15

18

20

21

27

5

34

0 20 40 60 80 100

EU-27

FI

SE

DK

NL

IT

AT

LU

EE

IE

PT

BE

DE

SI

ES

EL

HU

CZ

FR

LT

MT

LV

CY

HR

PL

RO

BG

SK

UK

MK

Frequently or always Sometimes Rarely or never Don’t know or prefer not to say

Graph 7

Notes: a Out of all respondents in the EU-27, North Macedonia and the United Kingdom (n = 34,948); weighted results.

b The question asked in the Fundamental Rights Survey was ‘Based on what you have heard or your own experience, would you say the police in [this country] generally treat people with respect?’ The answer categories were as shown in the figure above, while some answer categories have been combined for the figure.


2322

FIGURE 8: GENERAL POPULATION – PERCEPTION ON HOW OFTEN POLICE GENERALLY TREATS PEOPLE WITH RESPECT IN THE COUNTRY, BROKEN DOWN BY SELECTED SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (EU-27, %) a,b

FIGURE 9: GENERAL POPULATION – PERCEPTION ON HOW OFTEN POLICE GENERALLY TREATS PEOPLE WITH RESPECT IN THE COUNTRY, BROKEN DOWN BY SELECTED GROUPS (EU-27, %) a,b

Graph 8

67

64

54

63

67

69

74

64

63

71

65

56

72

60

62

54

64

70

74

64

71

55

55

64

66

67

23

23

30

25

24

20

17

23

24

21

24

30

18

27

25

28

25

21

18

24

19

28

30

23

23

22

9

12

15

12

9

10

7

12

12

7

11

13

8

13

11

17

10

8

8

11

8

17

13

12

10

10

0 20 40 60 80 100

Women

Men

16-29

30-44

45-54

55-64

65+

Lower secondary or less

Upper secondary, or post secondary but not tertiary

Tertiary

Employed or self-employedUnemployed

Retired

Student, pupil

Other

With (great) difficulty

With some difficulty

Fairly easily

(Very) easily

Salaries, self-employed, farming

Pensions

Unemployment benefits, social benefits

Other

Big city (incl. suburbs)

A town or a small city

A country village or home in the countryside

Gend

erAg

e

High

est l

evel

of

edu

catio

nco

mpl

eted

Mai

n ac

tivity

(cur

rent

situ

atio

n)Ho

useh

old’

s ab

ility

to

mak

e en

ds m

eet

Hous

ehol

d’s

mai

nso

urce

of i

ncom

eTy

oe o

f are

a


58

66

66

66

67

60

66

61

52

67

66

58

64

68

49

47

24

23

23

23

24

26

23

25

29

22

23

28

25

21

33

32

16

10

10

11

7

12

11

13

18

10

10

13

10

10

18

19

0 20 40 60 80 100

Graph 9

Severly limited

Limited but not severly

Not limited at all

Born in the survey country

Born in another EU Member State

Born in a non-EU country

Citizen of the survey country

Not a citizen of the survey country

Yes

No

Heterosexual

Not heterosexual

No religion

Christian

Muslim

Other religion

Expe

rienc

ing

limita

tions

inac

tiviti

espe

ople

us

ually

do

Coun

try

ofbi

rth

Wet

her o

r not

a pe

rson

isa

citiz

en o

fth

e su

rvey

coun

try

Self-

iden

tifyi

ngas

a p

art o

fan

eth

nic

min

ority

Sexu

alor

ient

atio

nRe

ligio

n








PERCEPTION OF PROFILING IN POLICE STOPS EXPERIENCED BY IMMIGRANTS AND ETHNIC MINORITIES

MAIN RESULTS Ë The perception of being subjected to ethnic profiling when stopped by the police in the five years before the

survey is the most common among immigrants and descendants of immigrants from South Asia in Greece (89 %), and Roma in the Netherlands (86 %) and Portugal (84 %), according to the results of EU-MIDIS II and the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019. At the same time, almost none of the Russian minority respondents from Latvia and Lithuania felt that they were stopped by the police because of their ethnic background. (See Figure 10.)

Ë Immigrants’ and ethnic minorities’ trust in the police depends on how they experience being stopped by the police and whether or not they perceive the stops as ethnic profiling. (See Figure 11.)

Ë For example, among Roma surveyed in EU-MIDIS II, the level of trust in the police is lower (trust level 2.8) among those who believe that they were stopped due to ethnic profiling than among those who did not perceive the police stop as ethnic profiling (trust level 4.4). Trust levels in the police are expressed on a 10-point scale, where higher values indicate a higher level of trust.

Ë Similarly, notable differences in terms of respondents’ levels of trust in the police depending on the type of experience they had when stopped by the police can be found among immigrants and descendants of immigrants from Sub-Saharan Africa, Turkey and North Africa (EU-MIDIS II).

Ë The main results report of EU-MIDIS II notes that immigrants, descendants of immigrants and ethnic minorities display a level of trust in public authorities (including the police) that is similar to, or even higher than, the general population’s trust in authorities.

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2017/second-european-union-minorities-and-discrimination-survey-main-results

25

FIGURE 10: PERCEPTION THAT MOST RECENT POLICE STOP WAS DUE TO STOPPED PERSON’S IMMIGRANT OR ETHNIC MINORITY BACKGROUND, IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%) a,b,c,d

5614

5223

19(37)

19

43

57

4216

4717

(0)

6389

4746

27

334244

45

27

0 20 40 60 80 100

376

135611

1

18

12

145

105

3053

1121

10

101211

20

9

2935

1216

2518

6

24

9

2027

1123

11

187

1225

28

2117

14

25

24

3459

7579

7071

92

57

79

6668

7973

89

5341

7755

61

6971

75

55

67

0 20 40 60 80 100

519

2310

17

(

12

(

5

2013

4411

1

287

2

75

22

2

6

47

13

1315

912

11

15

18

16

3

1316

715

13

612

2

710

11

32

12

511

6

8266

6878

72

85

69

84

92

67

$%48

75

86

6682

96

8685

67

66

82

918381

0 20 40 60 80 100

71

Experiencing ethnic profiling when stopped by the police,out of all respondents

Stopped with ethnic profiling, out of all persons stopped

Stopped with ethnic profiling Stopped with no ethnic profiling Not stopped

AT - SSAFRAT - TUR

BE - NOAFRBE - TUR

BE - ROMABE - Caravan dwellers

BG - ROMA

CY - ASIA

CZ - ROMA

DE - SSAFRDE - TUR

DK - SSAFRDK - TUR

EE - RUSMIN

EL - ROMAEL - SASIA

ES - NOAFRES - ROMA

FI - SSAFR

FR - NOAFRFR - SSAFR


HR - ROMA

HU - ROMA

IE - SSAFRIE - Travellers

IT - NOAFRIT - SASIAIT - SSAFR

LT - RUSMIN

LU - SSAFR

LV - RUSMIN

MT - SSAFR

NL - NOAFRNL - TUR

PL - RIMGR

PT - ROMAPT - SSAFR

RO - ROMA

SE - SSAFR

SI - RIMGR

SK - ROMA



UK - SASIAUK - SSAFR


2855

7146

60

0

40

0

(66)

6143

8642

9

8435

52

5131

66

5

35

4538

69

0 20 40 60 80 100

2726

Notes: a Out of all respondents. EU-MIDIS II (n = 25,515); RTS (n = 4,659); weighted results.

b The question asked in EU-MIDIS II was ‘In the past 5 years in [COUNTRY] (or since you have been in [COUNTRY]), have you ever been stopped, searched, or questioned by the police?’ and ‘Do you think that the last time you were stopped was because of your [TAILORED TO TARGET GROUP CATEGORIES: ethnic or immigrant background / Roma background / ethnic minority background]. The answer categories in both questions were ‘Yes’, ‘No’, while respondents could also answer ‘Don’t know’, ‘Do not understand the question’ or ‘Refused’. The results for the Roma and Travellers Survey 2019 are based on a similar question and answer categories as those used in EU-MIDIS II.

c Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Thus, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations in a group total are noted in parentheses. Results based on fewer than 20 unweighted observations in a group total are not published.


Source: FRA, RTS 2019; EU-MIDIS II 2016

2726

FIGURE 11: LEVELS OF TRUST IN POLICE AND EXPERIENCES WITH POLICE STOPS IN 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY EU-MIDIS II TARGET GROUP (AVERAGE VALUES ON SCALE RANGING FROM 0 TO 10) a,b,c,d,e

Notes: a Out of all respondents who had been stopped by the police in the 5 years before the survey. EU-MIDIS II (n = 24,545); weighted results.

b The question asked in EU-MIDIS II were ‘Do you think that the last time you were stopped was because of your [TAILORED TO TARGET GROUP CATEGORIES: ethnic or immigrant background / Roma background / ethnic minority background]? Answer categories: ‘Yes’, ‘No’, and; ‘Please tell me on a scale of 0-10 how much you personally trust each of the [COUNTRY] institutions I read out. [COUNTRY]’s police?’ Answers could range from 0 ‘No trust at all’ to 10 ‘Complete trust’. In both questions, respondents could also answer ‘Don’t know’, ‘Do not understand the question’ or ‘Refused’.

c Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Thus, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations in a group total are noted in parentheses. Results based on fewer than 20 unweighted observations in a group total are not published (n.p.).

d In the sample, none of the respondents in the Russian minority indicated that police had stopped them with ethnic profiling. Therefore, the level of trust in police for this respondent category is not available (n.a.)

e Acronyms for target groups refer to immigrants from country/region and their descendants, and other minority groups as follows: TUR = Turkey, SSAFR = Sub-Saharan Africa, NOAFR = North Africa, (S)ASIA = South Asia and Asia, RIMGR = recent immigrants from non-EU countries, RUSMIN = Russian minority, ROMA = Roma minority.

Source: FRA, EU-MIDIS II 2016

4.8

5.0

3.9

6.3

n.p.

2.8

n.a.

6.0

7.2

6.0

6.9

7.4

4.4

5.9

6.5

7.4

6.4

7.4

7.1

4.7

5.9

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

SSAFR

TUR

NOAFR

(S)ASIA

RIMGR

ROMA

RUSMIN

Stopped with ethnic profiling Stopped with no ethnic profiling Not stopped

Graph 11

III28

Data sources

Fundamental Rights SurveyThe Fundamental Rights Survey is a general population survey, which interviewed just under 35,000 people aged 16 years and older in all EU Member States, North Macedonia and the United Kingdom. The survey involved a combination of face-to-face and online data collection, as appropriate in each country, to reach a representative sample of the total population. Fieldwork took place from January 2019 to October 2019.

EU-MIDIS II surveyFRA’s second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS II) interviewed face-to-face over 25,500 respondents with different ethnic minority and immigrant backgrounds in 28 countries. The fieldwork took place from September 2015 to November 2016.The findings of EU-MIDIS II on police stops have been presented in various reports, including:EU-MIDIS II: Main results (2017)Muslims – Selected findings (2017)Being Black in the EU (2018)

Roma and Travellers Survey 2019The Roma and Travellers Survey 2019 collected data in Belgium, France, Ireland, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom – in these countries, EU-MIDIS II had not interviewed Roma and Travellers. In total for the six countries included in the Roma and Travellers Survey, the face-to-face interviews collected data from 4,659 respondents between December 2018 and July 2019.

The results of the Roma and Travellers Survey, including the findings concerning police stops, were published in the 2020 report Roma and Travellers in six countries.

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2017/second-european-union-minorities-and-discrimination-survey-main-results

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2017/second-european-union-minorities-and-discrimination-survey-muslims-selected

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2018/being-black-eu

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/roma-travellers-survey

https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2020/roma-travellers-survey

III28

FUN

DA

MEN

TAL

RIG

HTS

SU

RV

EY

YOUR RIGHTS MATTER: SECURITY CONCERNS AND EXPERIENCES―

FUN

DA

MEN

TAL

RIG

HTS

SU

RV

EY

WHAT DO FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS MEAN FOR PEOPLE IN THE EU?―

FUN

DA

MEN

TAL

RIG

HTS

SU

RV

EY

CRIME, SAFETY AND VICTIMS’ RIGHTS―

Crime, safety and victim

s’ rightsFRA

FUN

DA

MEN

TAL

RIG

HTS

SU

RV

EY

YOUR RIGHTS MATTER: DATA PROTECTION AND PRIVACY―

FRA has so far published two main reports and two papers that present results from its Fundamental Rights Survey. These can be accessed on FRA’s website.

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PROMOTING AND PROTECTING YOUR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS ACROSS THE EU ―

FRA – EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTSSchwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – AustriaT +43 158030-0 – F +43 158030-699

fra.europa.eu

facebook.com/fundamentalrights twitter.com/EURightsAgency linkedin.com/company/eu-fundamental-rights-agency

TK-09-21-058-EN-N

This paper presents statistical survey data for the EU on how often people are stopped by the police, in what kind of situations they are stopped, the action taken by the police during stops, and views on whether or not the police acted respectfully.

The statistical data are drawn from FRA’s Fundamental Rights Survey on the general population, and on people with an ethnic minority or immigrant background, including Roma, from FRA's second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey 2016 and its Roma and Travellers Survey 2019.

https://fra.europa.eu/en

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your rights matter: police stops (fundamental rights survey)

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