Edited by Paul YuleLate Antique Arabia

Ẓafār, Capital of Ḥimyar

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2013

Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden

Abhandlungender Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft

Herausgegeben von der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft

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Hausleiter.indd Abs12 15.06.2010 13:45:06186083-OHV-Yule.indd 2 15.05.13 08:24

2013

Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden

Abhandlungender Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft

Herausgegeben von der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft

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Arnulf Hausleiter

Neuassyrische Keramikim Kerngebiet Assyriens

Chronologie und Formen

2013

Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden

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Late Antique ArabiaZ. afa�r, Capital of H. imyar

Rehabilitation of a ‘Decadent’ SocietyExcavations of the

Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg1998–2010 in the Highland of the Yemen

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Printed with a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://dnb.dnb.de abrufbar.

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

For further information about our publishing program consult our website http://www.harrassowitz-verlag.de© Otto Harrassowitz GmbH & Co. KG, Wiesbaden 2013This work, including all of its parts, is protected by copyright.Any use beyond the limits of copyright law without the permissionof the publisher is forbidden and subject to penalty. This appliesparticularly to reproductions, translations, microfilms and storageand processing in electronic systems.Printed on permanent/durable paper.Printing and binding: Memminger MedienCentrum AGPrinted in GermanyISSN 0417-2442ISBN 978-3-447-06935-9

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Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... XIForeword ......................................................................................................................................... XIIIEditor’s foreword ............................................................................................................................ XVIAbbreviations .................................................................................................................................. XVIIThe image base HeidICON ............................................................................................................. XVIIIList of illustrations .......................................................................................................................... XIXList of tables and graphs ................................................................................................................. XXIParticipants ...................................................................................................................................... XXVI

1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 1 Environmental Setting ................................................................................................................ 2 Ancient Highland Agriculture .................................................................................................... 3 StateofResearchRelatingtoḤimyarandẒafār–aChronicle ................................................. 5 – Pre-modernSources ............................................................................................................... 5 – ModernSources ...................................................................................................................... 6 – RelatedFieldProjects ............................................................................................................. 12 – al-Bayḍāʾ/Ḥaṣī,Settlement ............................................................................................ 12 – ¸amār/al-Aḍlaʿ,Settlement ........................................................................................... 12 – ¸amār/Ḫarābatal-Ahǧur,TombKAHi ......................................................................... 13 – ¸amār/NafaqBaynūnMaftuh,Settlement .................................................................... 13 – ¸amār/HaydḤirrān,Tombs .......................................................................................... 13 – ¸amār/MaṣnaʿatMāriya(ancientSamiʿān),Settlement ............................................... 13 – Ḥaḍramawt/Qāniʾ,Settlement ....................................................................................... 14 – Ibb/Ǧabalal-ʿAwd,SettlementandTombs .................................................................... 14 – SaʿūdiArabia/Naǧrān/Naǧrān,Settlement .................................................................... 16 – SultanateofOman/ẒafārGovernorate/ḪawrRūrī,Settlement ..................................... 16 – SultanateofOman/ẒafārGovernorate/otherSites ........................................................ 16

2. SurveyandSmallExcavations ................................................................................................... 23 IntroductoryComments .............................................................................................................. 23 Ẓafār,Overview .......................................................................................................................... 23 Ẓafār/ḤuṣnRaydān,Buildingz028 ............................................................................................ 25 Ẓafār/ḤuṣnRaydān,EasternFlank,TestTrenchesz149andz175 ............................................ 26 Ẓafār/ḤuṣnRaydān,EasternFlank,al-Suḫt ............................................................................... 26 Ẓafār/ḤuṣnRaydān,SouthernFlank,BuildingPlatformz178 .................................................. 26 Ẓafār/ḤuṣnRaydān,South-westernFlank ................................................................................. 27 ẒafārSouth/Maǧannah,Cemeteryz236 ..................................................................................... 31 ẒafārSouth/al-Ǧirāǧir,SettlementTell ...................................................................................... 31 ẒafārSouth/al-ʿUwār,al-ʿAṣabi,Ruins ..................................................................................... 31 ẒafārSouth/Maʾǧilal-Šaʿbānī,IrrigationFacility ..................................................................... 31 ẒafārSouth/Ǧabūbatal-Aṣwar,BuildingRuinz347 ................................................................. 32 ẒafārSouth/Ǧabūbatal-Ḥamrāʾ,BuildingRuinsz247andz470 .............................................. 32

Contents

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VIII Contents

Ẓafārwest/Wādīal-Ḥāf,al-Šugāg,FieldTerracing,Dam .......................................................... 32 Zafarwest/al-Danān,ḌarrābEntrance ....................................................................................... 32 IbbGovernorate/¸īal-Ṣawlaʿ,RockImagesbyKathrynKelleyandPaulYule ....................... 32 IbbGovernorate/al-ʿUṣaybīyah,SettlementandTomb .............................................................. 34

3. TheStoneBuildingSite ............................................................................................................. 51 DescriptionoftheContexts ........................................................................................................ 51 StatesoftheStoneBuildingSite ................................................................................................ 52 StratigraphyoftheDebrisinsidetheStoneBuilding ................................................................. 54 ObservationsontheMasonry ..................................................................................................... 56 The‘MasonMarks’CutontothePavementStones ................................................................... 56

4. TheCityDefences ...................................................................................................................... 83 ḤuṣnRaydānandal-Gusr,CityWalls ........................................................................................ 83 OuterCityGates ......................................................................................................................... 84

5. TheTombsandGraves ............................................................................................................... 91 Ẓafār/al-ʿAṣabī/al-Salm,NorthernFace,Cemeteryzc01 ........................................................... 91 Ẓafār/al-ʿUwār,ḤimyariteTombs .............................................................................................. 91 al-ʿArāfah,ḤimyariteTombar1 ................................................................................................. 92 IbbGovernorate/al-Nizhah/ǦarfAsʿad,ḤimyariteTomb .......................................................... 92 TombsatVariousSitesaroundẒafār .......................................................................................... 93

6. ThePottery ................................................................................................................................. 97 I State of Research ............................................................................................................... 97 II Method ............................................................................................................................... 100 III Imports ............................................................................................................................... 101 a. CoarseWare .................................................................................................................. 101 1 LateRomanPeriodRibbed,ʿAqabaType ................................................................. 101 2–7 Non-ʿAqabaImportedWaresA–F ........................................................................ 103 8 BlackBurnishedAksumite? ..................................................................................... 104 9 MicaceousWare ........................................................................................................ 104 10 CombedDecoration ................................................................................................ 104 b.ImportedFineWare ....................................................................................................... 104 11 Terra sigillata ......................................................................................................... 104 12 GlazedWare,Celadon ............................................................................................ 104 13 OtherGlazedWares ................................................................................................ 104 14 RedPolishedSouthAsian(?)andRelatedWares .................................................. 105 15 OtherRedPolishedWare,Aksumite,ḤimyariteorSouthArabian(?) .................. 105 16 Pseudo-prehistoricWare ......................................................................................... 105 IV LocallyProducedPottery .................................................................................................. 106 17 PlainandCookingWares ........................................................................................ 106 18 Amphorae ................................................................................................................ 106 19 StorageVessels ....................................................................................................... 107 20 StorageJars ............................................................................................................. 108 V DecorationandHandlesofLocallyProducedPottery ...................................................... 108 VI IntrasiteAnalysisofPottery ............................................................................................... 109 VII ComparisonwiththePotteryofal-Aḍlaʿ ........................................................................... 109

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IXContents

VIII ComparisonwiththePotteryfromtheǦabalal-ʿAwd ....................................................... 110

7. TheSculpture ........................................................................................................................... 125 ReliefWallz502oftheStoneBuilding ...................................................................................... 126 StandingCrownedReliefFiguresintheStoneBuilding ........................................................... 126 OtherImportantḤimyaritePeriodSculptures ............................................................................ 129

8. TheSmallFinds.......................................................................................................................... 145

9. ARomanPeriodInscriptioninSouthArabiabyChristianMarek ............................................. 163

10. ThreeLateSabaicInscriptionswithRoyalNamesfromẒafārbyWalterMüller ..................... 167

11. CharredPlantRemainsbyManfredRöschandElskeFischer ................................................... 187

12. TheAnimalRemainsbyMargarethaandHans-PeterUerpmann .............................................. 195

13. TheAbsoluteChronologybyPaulYule,BerndKromer,KristinaFranke ................................. 221 14CSamplesfromContextsinẒafāroutsidetheStoneBuilding .............................................. 221 14CSamplesStratigraphicPositionsintheStoneBuilding ....................................................... 222 ChronologyoftheStoneBuildingSite ...................................................................................... 225 ChronologyOutsidetheStoneBuildingSite ............................................................................. 227 OtherSynchronisms ................................................................................................................... 228

14. ThePlace-NamesatẒafār .......................................................................................................... 233

15. ConservationReportoftheStoneBuildingbyMichaelPfanner ............................................... 237

16. SummaryandConclusions ......................................................................................................... 239

17. Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 255

18. ImageCredits ............................................................................................................................. 273

19. Tables ...................................................................................................................................... 275 19.I ListofSitesatẒafār ..................................................................................................... 275 19.II ExcavationOperationsintheStoneBuilding ............................................................... 286 19.III ExcavatedContextsintheStoneBuilding ................................................................... 294 19.IV CityWallContexts ........................................................................................................ 300 19.V Typeoffindswhichareappearinthedatabaseincludingthekindsof

sculpture and relief motives .......................................................................................... 302

20.IndexNames,Places,Things ....................................................................................................... 303

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Acknowledgements

TheẒafārProjectowesitsorigintomyfriendsYusufʿAbdullāh(directoroftheGeneralOrgan-isation forAntiquities andMuseums, GOAM)and Burkhard Vogt (then director of the Re-searchStationoftheDAIinṢanʿāʾ),whobothin1996encouragedtheundersignedtotakeupwork in theYemen.This ideawould not havecome to fruition without the staunch support of WernerArnold,chairforSemiticsoftheSemi-nar for the Languages and Cultures of the Near East of Heidelberg University. From 2006, heprovedasteadysourceofinspirationandrepre-sentedourundertakingasanambassador.WiththeexpiryofDrYusuf’s tenureasdirector,hissuccessors continued support of field seasons at the site. The actual site mapping began as Diplo-marbeiten bornby the studentsof the InstituteforSpatialInformationandSurveyingTechnol-ogy, University ofApplied Sciences inMainz(i3mainz) under the advisorsWolfgangBöhlerand later Hartmut Müller. Nadia Ali (CNRS)made several keen observations regarding the relations toCopticart, a sore topicup tonow.LenaKrastel, inherdiplomaticway,helped toreadythemanuscript.

DifferentdonorsenabledourworkatẒafār,the first being the fund for cultural preservation of the Foreign Office of the Federal Republic of Germany (Dept. 602) which got us on ourfeetandsawtheproject throughcritical times.Intheyear2000,theGerdaHenkelFoundationprovidedpartial support for the excavation for3D scanning and supported a book onH. imyaras well which was designed to encourage inter-estinourtopic.Afteraone-yearawardin2000,theGermanResearchSociety(DFG)generouslyfundedtheprojectfrom2005to2011.TheFritzThyssen Foundation enabled our work from2002to2004.

TheDAIinṢanʿāʾ,representedfirstbyBurk-hardVogt and later IrisGerlach, facilitated ourvisits to theYemenandprovidedhospitalityforourcrewattheresearchstation.Overtheyears,

theGermanembassy inṢanʿāʾwasa sourceofsupport and encouragement. The discussion of the place-names in Ẓafār developed out of dis-cussions with Cornelia Ruppert.

WeenjoyedthecontractualsupportofGOAMfor our mapping, excavation and developmentofmuseumresources.Intermsofourcontract,theypermittedmanyrequestsallowingustore-searchandpublish.Iholdthecopyrightformostimages.

WalterW.Müller and Peter Stein answerednumerous questions regarding the transcriptionof names and of a more general nature as well. AlexanderSimaedited the220musnad inscrip-tions (in press, submitted 2004).These and theexcavatedoneswerepresentedtoNorbertNebesforpublication, the former in theseriesEpigra-phische Forschungen auf derArabischen Halb-insel.KatharinaGaloradvisedmeintheconclu-sionsaboutJewishreligiouscustoms.

I thank Marianne Bergmann (Berlin), Rob-ert Fleischer (Mainz), MarionMeyer (Vienna),KlausParlasca(Frankfurt/Main),ReinhardStup-perich (Heidelberg) for discussing the stylisticdatingwithme.Inthisdatingquestion,onecouldhardly wish for a more articulate and strongersupport.

Itisfitting,anhonourandacomplementtobeable topublishourexpeditionreport in theAb-handlungenoftheDeutscheOrient-Gesellschaft,whichhelpsmereachmygoalofintegratingourArabia research into the main body of ancientNearEasternarchaeology.

FelixBlocherkindlytookonthearduoustaskof reading the manuscript and made numerous suggestions.

CurtHilbrig,myexcavationtechniciansince2008,didagreatdealtodebugthepresentworkand its complex documenttation. Our studentsgavegenerouslyoftheirtimeandtalenttomakeourtrainingexcavationsasuccess.BackinHei-delbergmanydiscussionscouldbetestedinourseminarstogetherwithReinhardStupperich–an

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XII Acknowledgements

excellentclassicalarchaeologistandagoldmineof information.

Reinhard Friedrich from the HarrassowitzVerlagmademanyvaluableinstructionswithre-gardtotheformattingofthetext.

Finally,overtheyearstheẒafārīsceaselesslyaided and abetted our work. We could always

countontheirendlessgenerosityandgoodwill.WhenIaskpreviousparticipantswhataspectofthe project they liked best, they usually choosetheẒafārīs.

Heidelberg,January2012PaulYule

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Asking the author which of his archaeologi-cal projects he considers his best is like askingamothertonameherfavouritechild.TheẒafārproject is arguably my most successful one interms of recognition: To judge from my col-leagues‘ reactions, it had a greater impact thanmyprojectsinIndiaandOman.Inthecaseofallthreesubjectareas,Iwasinthefortunatepositionoftreadingthematicallyon terra incognita. Ob-viously,ifonlyahandfulofexpertsarefamiliarwith thesources relating toagivensubjectanditisperipheraltoauniversitycurriculum,thisinitself limits the reception of such work. A degree offinancialcontinuityandsignificantfindsena-bledme to continually refine and correct itera-tivelyfromseason toseasonmydocumentationofẒafāranditshistory.

What compelled me to work on Ẓafār for12years?Iwasdissatisfiedwiththestateofar-chaeological research for this period inArabia,which has long been the domain of research mostly of excellent Qurʾānic scholars fromJ.Wellhausen(1897)toF.Donner(1981,1998)aswellasepigrapherssuchasW.Müller(2001)andC.Robin(2006)–notarchaeologists.Inoursub-discipline interdisciplinary archaeologicalstudies can and do rectify our written sources.Another reason is that there have been few de-tailed archaeological studies regarding the end of the pre-Islamic period. Instead there have beenexcellentlearnedonesabouttheǧahalīyah, ridda and conquests of the new Islamic state whichleave thematerial culture completelyobscure–asifitdidnotexistorwereunimportant.

In addition, from the very beginning of myArabia research I wanted a structural change in the research so that the newness of our work thereberecognisedinternationallyvis à vis main streamNearEastern andClassical archaeology.A second goal was sustained, responsible sitestudyandmonitoringcomplementedbyopenac-cessdatadisseminationandprojecttransparency.However,in2010politicalinstabilityinourhost

countryendedourproject.The internetenabledthedisseminationofmystudiesandimagesalter-native to Eurocentric conventional publication,which is available to most of our colleagues in thehostcountry,butonlyinalimitedway.Nowmuch of our documentation is available to all,gratisandfreefromtheextraneouspressuresofinterest groups within the field of Arabian ar-chaeology.‘Real-timedissemination’meansthatresults appear in the internet weeks after the con-clusion of the work instead of manifest waiting queues up to eight yearswithmy conventionalpublications.

Until now there has been little articulate arthistoricalmethod; for better and forworse, themain emphasis in our subdiscipline has dwelt on the cataloguing of finds. Texts, ancient andmodern studies which channelled can character-iseourperiodasdecadentrequireexplanation.Itishopedthat thenewlyexcavatedfindswill in-fluence such old-fashioned value prejudice.NocontemporaryexcavatedsiteliesintheareanearẒafārexceptQāniʾ (Sedov1992) some500kmawayinḤaḍramawt.Situated60kmtothenorth,MaṣnaʿatMāriyahasbeensurveyed,butnotyetexcavated.TheǦabalal-ʿAwd,ascant25airkmtothesouth-east,datestotheearlyḤimyaritepe-riod. These sites are known from a few reports and tellus littleaboutẒafāror itsculturalcon-text.Allofthesefactorsaffectedmysitechoice.

Significantly,theḤimyaritetribalconfederacycarriedoutthefirstpolitical-militaryunificationofArabia.Theirregnalcalendarbeginsin110BC(deBlois1990)with thecommencementof theearlyperiod.From270to525theempirefollows(Yule2007a:10).Thereafter,werefertothelate/postperiod(525tothe2nd¼ofthe7thcent.CE).The present study accents the last segments ofOldSouthArabian(OSA)orḤimyariteperiodar-chaeologyandhistory.Onlyrarelydoesoursub-ject requireme to delve into the pre-Ḥimyariteregionalhistory,becauseatẒafārfortheseperi-ods archaeological sources still remain unknown.

Foreword

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XIV Foreword

Ifnototherwisespecified,thedatescitedbelowareCEformulations.“?200”and“c.200”reflectrespectivelylesserandgreatercertainty.

Threeemphasesformedourprojectstrategy:mapping, development of museum resourcesandexcavation.Casesinwhichwedidnotreachour cultural resource management and research objectives stemfrom the lackof successofourresearch group in attracting more funding and theinstabilityoftheinfrastructureintheYemenwhich hosts the project.Weunderestimated theamount of time required for most field opera-tions:Themappingofmorethan140hatookfarmore time than we ever imagined: nine seasons of survey and evaluation.During the course oftheprojectnewand importantaspectsemerged,suchasthemappingofal-ŠugāgandMaʾǧilal-Šaʿbānī.Theunderestimatingholdsalsoforread-yingthedataforpublication.Initiallackofaclearand simple relational database format resulted in frequentredesigningofthedatabaseandsloweddown the evaluation which nourished final pub-lication. These data encompass the archaeologi-calcontexts,operations,artefacts,photos,potteryraw drawings, final drawings and other aspectswhich we publish, for example in the imagebankHeidICON (see below). Particularly time-consuming were the verification of all aspects of thedocumentationofthecampaigns2004,2006and2007.Ourcampaignswerecharacterisedbyalackoftimeandmanpowerresources,despiteagenerous financing.

Althoughwewere allowed to export humanand animal bones, a few metallic and potteryspecimens, such requests proved time-consum-ing,nerve-wracking,bureaucraticandexpensive.Thus,analysesofglassorotherinterestingmate-rialswhichare standard in today’s archaeologi-calreportsarelackinginthisone.WhenGOAMmistakenly sent us radiocarbon samples fromotherexpeditionsinsteadofours’,wehadaniceopportunity to chatwith our colleagues and at-temptexchange.

ThevisiblydecliningstateofpreservationoftheruinsatẒafārasaresultoftheelementsandanthropogenic influence before our eyes condi-tioned our field strategy:We first mapped andregistereditssitesinordertorecogniseshape,po-

sitionandsizeoftheantiquecityscape.Fromthestart,surfacesamplingofindividualfindsprovedastrategylikelytobeoflittleuse.Weturnedtotopographic mapping, analysis by means of aQuickBirdsatellite imageandexcavation.Afterour preliminary reports appeared, we changeda few of the site designations and added others. TheconservationoftheStoneBuildingsitedom-inated the final campaign consuming precious resources.

Fortunately,theẒafārprojectfollowedmyre-searchof the1980sandearly1990sdevoted tolate pre-Islamic central Oman, which provideda relevant historical perspective with the eastern side of the Arabian Peninsula beginning a few centuriesearlier.Ẓafārconfrontedmewithadis-turbedstratigraphyandsourcesotherthanthosethat the historian would prefer.

The following chapters themselves can be quickly previewed.After describing the textualand visual resources available to the reader re-gardingẒafār,Chap.1ofthisexcavationreportbegins with a sketch of the environment of the Highlands which influences the development of the Ḥimyarite epoch. A number of projectsdealingwith thisagerequirecomment.Withoutthesethenetnewnessofthepresentstudycannotbe ascertained. This state of research also cata-loguesdiachronicallythemainoperationsatoursite. Chap. 2 goes into greater detail on smaller Ḥimyarite contexts which we investigated.Chap. 3 articulates the diachronic development of the Stone Building Site – ourmain excava-tion.ThecitydefencesaredescribedinChap.4.Chap. 5 summarises the Ḥimyarite graves andtombs which complements the discussion on architecture. The discussion of the pottery inChap.6appearsprovidesthebasicdata(seebe-low).Twoandthree-dimensionalsculpturecometo bear inChap. 7.The better dated context oftheeasterncourtyardwalloftheStoneBuildingforms the basis of this discussion. Time and space allowdiscussionofonlythemostsignificantex-amples, therestbeingsimplyreproduced in theimagebaseHeidICON.Chap.8summarisesthesmallfinds,thatis,glass,metal,stoneandothermaterials. InChap.9aGreek inscriptionof theRomanperiodfromthesitemuseumformsanex-

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XVForeword

ceptiontotheruleofpublishingonlyfindsfromthe excavation. Surface and excavatedmusnad inscriptionsappearinChap.10.Chap.11and12summarisethebotanicalandzoologicalremainsmostly from theStoneBuildingsite.This leadsuptotheabsolutechronologywhichnowcanap-pearinChap.13,buildingontheexplanationofthestratigraphysetdowninthediscussionoftheStoneBuilding inChap. 3.At thebeginningof

ourwork,no-onehadwrittenmuchaboutthelo-calplace-names,whichgaveimpetustoChap.14.

The text is rounded off in Chap. 15 with adiscussion of the conservation measures which we undertook at the site and brief mention of the stoneidentifications.Thenetresultoftheexcava-tionissynthesizedinbrieffashioninChap.16.Theremainingbibliographyandindicessupportthe documentation.

Arabic Sabaic Arabic Sabaic Arabic Sabaicʾ(exceptwheninitial)ʾ zز z fف fbب b sس s1 (g)qق qtت t šش s2 kك kṯث ṯ - s3 lل lǧج g ṣص ṣ mم mḥح ḥ ḍض ḍ nن nḫج ḫ ṭط ṭ hه hdد d ẓظ ẓ wو w(¼)ḏذ ḏ ʿع ʿ yي yrر r ġغ ġ

Vowels diphthongsā,ī,ū,a,i,u aw,ayArabicةa;at(constructstate)antero-palatals)thebefore(evenʾl-andal-,(articleArabic)ال

Table0.1.SystemofTransliterationofSemiticCharacters.

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WithgreatpleasuretheDeutsche Orient-Gesell-schaftpresentsherebyavolumefromthepenofPaulYule. Like hardly any other, Paul workedarchaeologicallyinthemostdiverseareasoftheNearEast,inadditiontotheIndianSubcontinent.ForyearshedevotedhimselftothePersian-Ara-bianGulfandtheArabianPeninsula.Morethan15yearsagoheturnedhisattentiontoZafar,cap-italof theHimyariteEmpire.Thiscentredomi-nated Arabia from the late 3rd to the 6th centuries and isoneof the last expressionsofOldSouthArabianCulturejustpriortothecomingofIslam.

The fieldwork had three emphases: topo-graphicrecordingandmapping,developmentofasitemuseumandexcavations.Themostelabo-rate and difficult contribution was the mapping conceived as the basis for further research. The intention was to document the preservation of theruinswhichworsenedcontinuouslyovertheyears.Numerous surface finds found theirwayintomuseumsintheYemenandelsewhere.Theyremain,however,straysinneedofacontext.Ex-cavationwastoremedythisproblem.

By means of twelve field seasons, financedby different financial sources Paul and histeams succeeded in illuminating many aspectsof old Zafar and assembling them into a greater whole.Typically, Paulmadeuse of state of theartinvestigativemethodssothatnaturalscience,epigraphic and other aspects came to fruition.

Happily, an established philological institution,namelythechairforSemiticsoftheSeminarforthe Languages and Cultures of the Near East of HeidelbergUniversity,hasbeenPaul’slong-termacademic base.

Today not only has the chronology becomefarmore secure – the years of difficult debatesregarding Old South Arabian chronology havelapsed – but also stylistic attributions of sculp-ture,informationregardinghistoricalgeographyandaceramicsequencehavetakenonaclearerprofile.

The Board of Directors of the DOG unani-mously agreed that a publication of the Zafarprojectinbookformwouldmotivateothersandawaken interest in ancientYemen to enable anoverview at least one of the most important ar-chaeological sites and serve as a scale for future research in this difficult milieu.

We thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-schaftnotonlyforitssupportoverseveralyears,but also for subvention for the production of this elaboratevolume. Wealso thank theHarrasso-witzVerlagfor theirprofessionalsupportof theprinting.

Halle(Saale),21January2013FelixBlocherSecretaryoftheDeutsche Orient-Gesellschaft

Editor’s Foreword

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Abbreviations

DSP DamarSurveyProject,ChicagoUniversityOrientalInstituteGOAM GeneralOrganisationforArchaeologyandMuseumsLS lower surfacelz Laufzettel,i.e.serialfindslipsoftheHeidelbergexpeditionop excavationactivitypz excavationphotonumberinHeidICONprof. profile drawing in HeidICONsf small findsus upper surfaceUTM universaltransversemercatorz Ẓafārprojectnumberzm ẒafārMuseuminventorynumberZVM ẒafārVirtualMuseumhttp://zafar.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de

Period names:late/postḤimyariteperiod 525‒2nd¼7th cent. CEempireperiod c.270‒525CEearlyḤimyariteperiod 110BCE‒c.270CE

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The images published herein suffice to illustrate the text,butareamere fractionof the totalof25,000 drawings, and photos (52 GB) whicharose during the course of our work. Opening any excavation report onArabia, one has theimpression that there cannot be enough photos todocumentthemanyaspectsofthefieldwork.Bymid20103000selectedimagesintheinter-netimage-basebecameavailable.Atthetimeofpublication this liesatc.4700.Onceyouhaveentered the HeidICON pool (http://heidicon.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/pool/zafar)SKVO“Zafar/Yemen”)theimagescanbesearchedbymeansofkeywords.Thesecanbeviewedanddown-loadedgratisfromtheHeidICONprojectoftheHeidelbergUniversityLibraryThese resourcescomplement selected writings of the author re-garding Arabia stored in the document server (http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/yule)whichcontains thepreliminaryreports insearchable digital form.

Table 0.1 shows the sorting principles andkeywords.Ifaphotonumberisknown,onecansearchbymeansofitorjustbyakeyword.What-ever is tobesearchedyouenter into thesearchwindow in the upper left in the HeidICON mask. ExamplesinTable0.1includeforinstance,jew-ellery, small find, sculpture, or team.Someob-jectsarelistedinaspecialsense:Museumreferstotheon-sitemuseumatẒafār.‘Lot’isagroupof objects that are photographed together,mostoften sculpture or glass fragments.

Commonplace abbreviations which we use in-clude these forphotosof theexcavationand itsartefacts:

lz04~001inop400~024lz=Laufzettel, artefacts or artefact lots are cited by the year and number of their serialised findslips

op400~025aAnexcavationoperationiscitedbyitsoperationnumber.

pz400~091Anexcavatedcontextiscitedinaphotobyitspznumber.

z097A house, building, wall or floor is cited by itscontextnumber.

z400~401excavationz400,context401 in themainexca-vationlandscapesmayincludeseveralcontexts:Marib

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FrontispieceẒafār/al-Ǧaḥwin1970(above)andin2010(below)viewedtothenorth.1.1 Natural space divisions of South Arabia.1.2 Precipitation in South Arabia.1.3 GeologyoftheareaaroundẒafār,1:250.000.1.4 False-colourQuickBirdsatelliteimageofẒafāranditsarea(therectangleshowsthegeneralsite

plan,Folio1),recorded01.04.2004.1.5 MapofArabia,4th–5th centuries CE.1.6 MapofthemainOldSouthArabiantowns.1.7 Mapofplacescited(TacticalPilotageChart,sheetK-6A,edition3-GSGS).1.8 2000,viewofthemagazineofthesitemuseumwiththefindsdumpedonthefloorinplacesto

a depth of 1 m.2.1 Schematicmapofpresent-dayẒafār.2.2 PlanoftheḤuṣnRaydān,state26.03.2008.2.3 Sketchplanandcrosssectionofstructurez028ontheḤuṣnRaydān.2.4 Featurez175towardthenorth-west.2.5 ViewoftheḤuṣnRaydāntowardthesouth-west,centredebrisfieldal-Suḫt.2.6 Stoneplanandprofiledviewofstructurez178.2.7 Structurez178afterexcavationof2002viewedtowardthesouth.2.8 Planandx-rayviewsofthesubterraneanchambersinal-Ǧaḥw.2.9 Aboveleft:plan,below:x-rayviewofthemosqueandchamber,z070&z071.2.10 Above:insidechamberz096tothenorth-east.2.11a,b Below:planandprofileviewofchamberz096.2.12 Planandprofileviewofchamberz067.2.13 Left:insidechamberz067tothesouth-west.2.14 Right:insidechamberz067tothesouth-east.2.15 Plan,profileandcrosssectionsofgalleryz066.Theeast-north-east‒west-south-westpartofthe

structure in the south is recent.2.16a,b Reliefscutontothepiersatthenorthernendofthegalleryz066,onthesouthernfacesrespec-

tivelyofthea)westernandb)easternflanks.2.17 TombsandgravesinẒafārplottedonaQuickBirdsatelliteimage(01.01.2004).2.18 Left:planoftheoverlappingofthepavementsz380,z422andthewallsz378andz379.2.19 Right:sitez300:centreabove:wallz370,centrebelow:trenchz391towardthenorth-west.2.20 Sitez300:eastprofile.2.21 Sitez300:chamberz374,eastprofile.2.22 Ẓafār/al-Ǧirāǧirtowardtheeast.2.23 Ẓafār/Maʾǧilal-Šaʿbānī:panoramaviewofthereservoirtotheeast-north-east.2.24 Ẓafār/Maʾǧilal-Šaʿbānī:planandnorth-north-eastcross-sectionthroughthereservoir.2.25 Upperleft:Ẓafār/Ǧabūbatal-Aṣwar,z347:plan.2.26 Upperright:Ẓafār/Ǧabūbatal-Ḥamrāʾ,z247:plan.2.27 Lowerleft:Ẓafār/Ǧabūbatal-Ḥamrāʾ,z247towardsouth.2.28 Lowerright:Ẓafār/Ǧabūbatal-Ḥamrāʾ,z470:plan.2.29 Ẓafār/Wādīal-Ḥāf:stoneprofileofthedamz326towardthesouth-east.2.30 Ẓafār/Wādīal-Ḥāf:plan.

List of figures

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XXII List of figures

2.31 Ẓafār/al-Danān,towardthewest.2.32‒5 IbbGovernorate/¸īal-Ṣawlaʿ,site1,rockimages.2.36a,b IbbGovernorate/¸īal-Ṣawlaʿ,site2,rockimages.2.37 TombclearingIbbGovernorate/al-ʿUṣaybīyah,2008.3.1 ExcavationprogressfortheStoneBuildingsite,2003‒2009.3.2 StoneBuilding:stoneplanandthatoftheexcavationz300,April2009.3.3 StoneBuildingandz300:heightplan.Thebluedashedlinesshowremovedcontextsandopera-

tions,April2009.3.4 StoneBuildingandz300:contextplan,April2009,seedetailFig3.6.3.5 Detail,post-StateIIbuildingsanddebris.StateIII(darkgrey)isearlierthanIV(middlegrey).

V(lightgrey)isthelatest.3.6 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op400~001–038.3.7 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op400~039–059.3.8 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op400~060–092.3.9 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op500~001–017.3.10 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op500~018–045.3.11 StoneBuilding:planoftheexcavationoperations,op600andop700.3.12 South-westernslopeoftheḤuṣnRaydān,south-easternprofile.3.13 StoneBuilding:fiveprofileviewsofdebrisandfeatures.3.14 StoneBuilding:profiledrawingoftheeasterncourtyardwallandplan,photo:Fig.7.1.3.15 StoneBuilding:profiledrawingofthenortherninteriorcourtyardwall.3.16 StoneBuilding:profiledrawingofthewesterncourtyardwall.3.17 StoneBuildingtowardthesouth-west,2009.3.18 SpoilterracesoftheStoneBuildingsite.3.19 StoneBuildingsite:relativechronology(fortheabsolutechronologycf.Table13.6).3.20 StoneBuilding:planofthe‚masonmarks‘.3.21 ‘Masonmarks’fromtheStoneBuilding.Class1:1:C5n,2:P3ne,3:O7w,4:G15s;class2:

5:E18s;6:C10w,7:B22w,8:B17s;class3:9:Q7n,10:U5w;miscellaneous:11:AQ7se,12:E13m. The direction north is above.

4.1 Planofthecitydefences.Table19.1liststhedifferentcontexts.4.2 PositionofthecitygatesandtheirnamessuperimposedonaQuickBirdsatelliteimage.5.1 Representative investigated tombs: 1 z066, 2 al-ʿArāfah ar1, 3 al-Nizah, Ẓubb/ǦarfAsʿad,

4z091,5z211,6z213,7z213,8z255,9zg07,10zg11.5.2 Ḥimyariteperiodcemetery,Ẓafārzc01,plan.5.3 Ḥimyariteperiodcemetery,Ẓafārzc01,towardthewest.5.4 Ḥimyariteperiodcemetery,Ẓafārzc01,towardthesouth.5.5 ǦarfAsʿadtowardthewest.5.6 StepsleadingtoǦarfAsʿad.5.7 Towardthewest,entrance.5.8 Interiorviewofroom1towardthenorth-east.5.9 Planandcross-sectionsofǦarfAsʿadnearal-Nizhah,14°16′40.1″N,44°15′16.2″E.6.1 Importedpottery,Ẓafārandcomparisons,1–5noscale.6.2 Dipintionʿ Aqabatypeamphorae.1:lz10~014,2:lz08~530,3:zm920(left,dipintonotenhanced).6.3 Imported(nos.1–11)andlocallyproduced(12–17)potteryfromẒafār.6.4 PotteryfromẒafār,plain,cooking.6.5 PotteryfromẒafār,amphorae,storagevessels.6.6 PotteryfromẒafār,storagevessels.6.7 PotteryfromẒafār,storagevessels,storagejars.

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XXIIIList of figures

6.8 LocallyproducedvesseldecorationfromẒafār.6.9 Rimformsofstoragejarsandstoragevessels.7.1 3Dscanoftheeasternwallanditsreliefs,z502andz607.Drawing:Fig.3.14.7.2 Detailofthefourreliefregisters,z502.7.3 RectifiedphotooftheḤimyaritecrownedfigure,z607.7.4 AversofthegoldcoinoftheAksumitekingKaleb.7.5 TheḤimyariterelieffragmentslz09~376and398fromcontextz702superimposedonadraw-

ingofreliefz607.7.6 EarlyByzantineivorydiptychofBoethius,487CE,MuseumCivicoChristiana.7.7 Ḥimyaritereliefdepictionofamoustachedfrontalfacefromop400~169(lz07~192).7.8 DetailofaneffacedḤimyariteperiodreliefintheeasterncourtyardwall,z502.7.9 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefdepictionofwomanwithherhandsonherbosomandfrontalbullhead

excavatedfromop700~001(lz09~164).7.10 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefdepictionofsphinxandhorsesfromthedebrisonpavementz413deriv-

ingultimatelyfromtheeasterncourtyardwall,z502(lz09~375).7.11a-d HeadoffigureA,3Dscan.7.12a-d HeadoffigureB,3Dscan.7.13 Left:architectureIrelief(zm0677).7.14 Right:architectureIIrelief(lz03~067.3).7.15 Left:architectureIIIrelief(lz09~078).7.16 Right:panel(zm0673).7.17 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefsasfoundinsideoperationop400~025a.7.18 Anthropomorphicrelieffromoperationop400~025a(lz07~361).7.19 Planandsectionoftheslagdepositop400~025a.7.20 Ḥimyariteperiodbull‘sheadfromoperationop400~025a(lz07~362).7.21 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefshowingaleonineheadfromoperationop400~091(lz04~091).7.22 Ḥimyariteperiodfragmentarygarmentedfigurefromoperationop400~013a(lz04~108).7.23 Ḥimyariteperiodalabaster(calcite)reliefintheẒafārMuseummagazinetenderedbyvillagers

forsaletoGOAM,nozmnumber.7.24 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefinterlace(vine)relieffragmentfromopnorth1(lz08~065.002).7.25 ḤimyariteperiodreliefdepictionofawomanwearingaPersiangownandbearingabundleof

brancheswiththelefthand(lz04~004).7.26 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefinwhichthebranchattributeisrecognisable(lz09~130.001).7.27 Ḥimyariteperiodreliefdepictionofladiesholdingpomegranatesfromop500~020.Thedetail

rightshowsthecross-section(lz04~173).7.28a,b ḤimyariteperiodreliefdepictionofladiesholdingpomegranatesfromthehouseofMuḥammad

ʿAlīAšwalinBaytal-Ašwal.Lengthc.60cm.7.29 Late/postḤimyariteperiodfragmentaryreliefofavulturecurrentlyinthevillageofḤaddatĠulays.7.30a,b Photoandroll-outofalate/postḤimyariteperiodcolumn,fromtheWādīal-SaʾylahinṢanʿāʾ,

nowhousedintheNationalMuseuminṢanʿāʾ.Height1.47m.8.1 SelectedglassremainsfromtheStoneBuilding.8.2 Metallicartefactsnos.5–7,10,11fromtheStoneBuilding.8.3 StonevesselsandlampsmostlyfromtheStoneBuilding.8.4 Seals,beadsmostlyfromtheStoneBuilding.9.1 Inscriptionzm2021fromtheẒafārSiteMuseum.10.1 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.2 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.3 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.

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XXIV Tables,Graphs

10.4 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.5 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.6 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding(exceptno.5).10.7 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.8 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.9 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.10 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.11 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.12 InscriptionsfromtheStoneBuilding.10.13 Inscriptionfrom“ẒafārSouth”.10.14 Inscriptionfrom“al-ʿAṣabīSouth”.10.15 Inscriptionsfrom“al-ʿAṣabīSouth”and“al-Gusr”.11 BotanicalremainsfromtheStoneBuilding.Thebarineachphotocorrespondsto1mm.11.1 Avena(oats),grain.11.2 Camelina sativa (goldofpleasure),seed.11.3 Coronilla(scorpionvetch),seed.11.4 Echinochloa crus-galli (cockspur),grain.11.5 Triticum(glumewheat),grain.11.6 Triticum(glumewheat),spikelet.11.7 Triticum(glumewheat),spikelet,differentstateofpreservationthan6.11.8 Hordeum vulgare(hulledmore-rowedbarley),grain,dorsalandventralsides.11.9 Lens culinaris(lentil),seed,twoviews.11.10 Linum usitatissimum(flax),seed.11.11 Prunus dulcis(almond),fruitstonefragment.11.12 Phoenix dactylifera(date),seedfragment.11.13 Sesamum indicum(sesame),seed.11.14 Triticum aestivum/durum(nakedwheat),grain,ventralfromthesideanddorsal.11.15 Triticum monococcum(einkorn),spikelet.11.16 Vitis vinifera(commongrapevine),pip.12.1 Differentialrepresentationofbody-partamongthebonefindsfromtheStoneBuildingandfrom

thecemeteryzc01.12.2 Firstphalangesofhorse(ormule?)anddonkeyfromtheStoneBuildingatẒafār.12.3 Log-sizeindices(LSIM)forearlycattlefromYemen(Ẓafār,Barʾān,Raybun),theGulf-Area

(Qalat519)andtheLevant(Hesban)basedonthestandardcreatedbyManhardt(1998).Thelength-measurementscontainedinthisstandardwereexcludedforthecalculationoftheẒafārIndices(seetext).

13.1 Plan of the 14CsamplesfromtheStoneBuildingandz300.13.2 MarginallydraftedandpeckedmasonryinthecourtyardoftheStoneBuilding.13.3 MarginallydraftedandpeckedmasonryfromBarāqiš.14.1 Place-namesinandaroundẒafār.Folio1 Mapoftheruinsofpresent-dayẒafār,2008(DINA2).

Tables,Graphs0.1 SystemoftransliterationofSemiticCharacters.0.2 SortingsystemofHeidICON–Ẓafār/Yemen.1.1 DescriptionoflandscapetypesintheYemen,1992–93.

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XXVTables,Graphs

3.1 TheplansoftheexcavationoperationsintheStoneBuildingorderedbyyear.3.2 Totalnumberandpercentofallexcavatedfind-lotsorderedbydebrislayer.3.3 MasonmarksfromtheStoneBuilding.4.1 SummaryofthenamesofthegatesofẒafārlistedinal-Iklīl giving the name of orientation for

the gates.6.1 ProportionoftheshapessampledfromẒafārbycategory.6.2 FrequencyofrecordedpotteryformsatẒafārincludingimports.6.3 Majorrimshapesandkindsofinclusionsinstoragevesselsarrangedaccordingtofrequency

(=Fig6.9).6.4 Intrasiteanalysisofpotteryshapes.6.5 WaregroupsfromtheǦabalal-ʿAwd.6.6 Al-ʿAwdmorphologicalcategories(sample:Zech2008:Taf.1–82)comparedwithsuchattrib-

utesfromẒafār.7.1 MaincategoriesofreliefmotifsexcavatedfromẒafār,mostlyfromtheStoneBuilding.Toview

examples,thereaderisreferredtotheimagebank,HeidICON.10.1 Mostlyexcavatedmusnad inscriptionsfromẒafār,1998–2010.11.1 Frequenciesofrecoveredplantremains.12.1 TaxonomiclistfortheanimalremainsfromẒafār(Yemen)-Excavations1998–2009.12.2 Radiocarbondatesonanimalbone-findsfromtheStoneBuilding.12.3. OsteometryofchickenfindsfromẒafār.12.4 OsteometryofthecatbonesfromẒafār.12.5 OsteometryofthehorsebonesfromẒafār.12.6 OsteometryofthedonkeybonesfromẒafār.12.7 Skeletalpartsofcamels(DromeDarius)foundatẒafār.12.8 OsteometryofdromedaryremainsfromẒafār.12.9 Skeletalpartsofcattle(Bos)foundatẒafār.12.10 OsteometryofCattle(Bos)fromẒafār.12.11 Slaughteringagesofcattle(Bos)atẒafār.12.12 Osteometryofsheep(ovis)andgoats(Capra)fromẒafār.12.13 OsteometryoftheNubianibexfromẒafār.12.14 Osteometryofwild(?)canidremainsfromẒafār.12.15 List of abbreviations used for measurements.13.1 Thirty-six14CdeterminationsareavailableforẒafārorderedinstratigraphicgroups.Thedates

arecalibratedtooneandtwostandarddeviationswithOxCalversion4.0(findspotsFig.13.1).13.2a RadiocarbondatagraphicfromoutsidetheStoneBuilding.13.2b RadiocarbondatagraphicfromtheStoneBuildingorderedasinTable14.1.13.3 Calibrateddatings from theStoneBuildingordered according to thedebris level, the strati-

graphicallydeepestappearbelowinthetable.13.4 AveragedcalibrateddatingsfromtheStoneBuildingorderedstratigraphicallybydebrislayer.13.5 ProposedchronologyforthestatesoftheStoneBuildingsite(graphicrepresentation:Fig.3.19).14.1 Listofplace-namesinandaroundẒafārwritteninlocaldialect.19.I ListofsitesatẒafār.19.II ExcavationoperationsintheStoneBuilding.19.III ExcavatedcontextsintheStoneBuildingandinz300.19.IV Thecitywallcontexts.19.V Typesoffindswhichareappearinthedatabaseincludingthekindsofsculptureandreliefmo-

tives.

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1998CeliaBergoffenṢaliḥud-DīnʿAliʿAbdulKawīManfredKleinRainerKraheʿAbdulRazaikTawfīqTaǧud-DīnPaulYule

2000CharlotteBankṢaliḥud-DīnBettinaHammThomas HammManuelHofmannʿAliAbdulKawīMatthiasLangʿAmīnal-MawrīKatherinSachsenbergThomas SchuppKarstenThieleCarstenWitzelPaulYule

2002Ḫālidal-ʿĀnsīPascalGarnJensGutperleʿAlīAbdulKawīMechthildKolbPetraKrebsMarkusRothʿIsaʿAlīal-ŠaʾbaniAḥmedŠugarAlexanderSimaPaulYule

2003Ḫālidal-ʿĀnsīṢaliḥud-DīnFrankKrämerMartinMayer

SimoneMühlRenate RechmannBašīral-SamīMarkusSchichtChristianWeidesPaulYule

2004Ḫālidal-ʿAnsīCorinnaBorchertMichelBlumenrothBurkartDähneAnjaDreiserKristinaFrankeCorneliusMeyerʿAlīal-NaqibṢaliḥal-NumayrīElkeSchmidgen-HagerPaulYule

2005Ḫālidal-ʿAnsīNils CarstensenʿAlīʿAbdul-Karimal-ḤakīmMechthildKolbChristoph RuschHolgerSchwarzerʿIsaʿAlīal-ŠaʾbaniPaulYule

2006Ḫālidal-ʿAnsīRafīqMḥdal-ʿArāmīAlexanderDarusKristinaFrankeMichaelaFritzJuliaGlagʿAlīʿAbdul-Karīmal-ḤakīmManfredRöschCornelia RuppertReginaUhlPaulYule

Participants

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XXVIIParticipants

2007Ḫālidal-ʿAnsīNabīlṢaliḥal-AšwalKristinaFrankeMartinGruberʿAlīʿAbdul-Karīmal-ḤakimJonasHohenadelJoelOrrinCornelia RuppertʿIsaʿAlīal-ŠaʾbaniIreneSteuer-SiegmundAnna-MariaUngelenkHans-JürgenWelzPaulYule

2008Ḫālidal-ʿAnsīRafīqMḥdal-ʿArāmīIngoBuchmannJohannaGreskaElske FischerMartinGruberJensGutperleʿAlīʿAbdul-Karīmal-ḤakīmCurt HilbrigSharlynHuillierFathʿAlīal-ǦulobʿAbduTawābMišraqīTobiasSchröder

Stella TomasiCarmenWiener-SteinerPaulYule

2009RafīqMḥdal-ArāmīDorotheaBlomeNašwanHussainḎabanʿAlīʿAbdul-Karīmal-ḤakīmCurt HilbrigKathrynKelleyElisabethMonamyMichaelPfannerFuādMḥdal-QašimIreneSteuer-SiegmundChristine VeidtHans-JürgenWelzDavidWengePaulYule

2010MartineBruckerʿAlīʿAbdul-Karīmal-ḤakimCurt HilbrigJörgLindenbeckRašidṮabital-NagarFuādMḥdal-QašimDavidWengePaulYule

Participants

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