Contents 1. Introduction 2

2. What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)? 2

3. What are the benefits of teaching in the ZPD? 5

4. How can I locate and teach in the ZPD? 5

5. How does the ZPD apply to 21st century education? 9

6. References 10

Who this guide is for o Teacherso Educational specialists

What it will help you do o Understand the concept of the zone of proximal developmento Learn how teaching in the zone can benefit students and inform

classroom teaching strategieso Locate the ZPD for each student and use it to differentiate instructiono Identify specific strategies and tools that can help you apply this concept

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 1

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 2

Introduction In a classroom of 30 students, each student hasa learning pace and style that is mostappropriate for him or her, yet differentiatinginstruction for all 30 can be a formidablechallenge. At the same time, we also know thatteaching without taking into account whatstudents already understand and what they stillneed to work on is ineffective.

This white paper introduces teachers andeducational specialists to the concept of the

zone of proximal development (ZPD) andexplores its role in students�’ educationalexperiences. Understanding how to locate anduse each student�’s ZPD can help educators planmore targeted instruction for the whole class,small groups, and each individual. Ultimately,aligning classroom teaching strategies tostudents�’ ZPDs can help educators moreeffectively guide all students toward achievinglearning goals.

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)? We can think of the zone of proximaldevelopment (ZPD) as the difference betweenwhat a child can do independently and what heor she is capable of doing with targetedassistance (scaffolding).

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky coined this term inthe 20th century to describe the sweet spotwhere instruction is most beneficial for eachstudent �– just beyond his or her current level ofindependent capability.

Instruction focused within each student�’s ZPD isnot too difficult or too easy, but just challengingenough to help him or her develop new skills bybuilding on ones that have already beenestablished. Students are most receptive toinstruction within their ZPD because itrepresents the next logical step in their ongoingskill development. In contrast, without reliableinformation on students�’ constantly evolvingZPDs, it is difficult to identify who is ready formore challenging material and who needsadditional assistance.

Lev Vygotsky

LOCATING THE ZPD

What the child is able to do incollaboration today, he will beable to do independently tomorrow.

Increasing Task

Difficulty The concept of the ZPD was originallyestablished as a framework to describe theprocess of self development (Chaiklin, 2003;Van der Veer, 2007) as it occurs with theguidance of adults and peers in the learningenvironment. This concept arose as Vygotsky�’s

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 3

Adults & Peers

Level of Potential Development

Zone of Proximal Development

Level of Actual Development

Student

response to the use of intelligence testing as ameasure of student knowledge and skills as wellas an indication of what should be taught(Blanck, 1990; Van der Veer, 2007). Vygotsky�’spioneering research focused on the role ofsocial interactions in human development. Inhis investigation of cognition, he examined the

complex relationships between language andthought as well as learning and play. What hefound was that children�’s social interactionswith significant individuals in their lives(parents, peers, teachers, and other adults)profoundly shape their interpretations of theworld and higher order thought processes.

THE ZPD IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT

Vygotsky suggested that instruction located ator below a student�’s current level ofunderstanding would not be challengingenough to promote further development; at thesame time, instruction that is beyond what astudent can comprehend is ineffective forstimulating learning. He postulated thatinstruction should therefore be targetedsomewhere in between, �“offer[ing] tasks thatare above the child�’s intellectual level, but nottoo far above it�” (Van der Veer, 2007, p. 79). Heproposed that this would enable students tobuild on current knowledge in order to advancein their learning.

Students�’ exposure to and interaction withothers is a critical element of their educationalgrowth (Gallimore & Tharp, 1990; Tudge, 1990).

With the level of potential development as agoal to work toward, students�’ learning can bevisualized as their journey �– aided by thesupport of peers, teachers, and family �– throughthe constantly evolving ZPD.

As an extension of this concept, Wood, Bruner,and Ross used the term scaffolding to refer tothe instructionally supportive activities andsocial interactions that occur between the childand other individuals as they guide effectivelearning and development in the ZPD.

Instructional scaffolding may include skillmodeling, initializing and maintaining interestand motivation, and simplifying problems to alevel that the student understands (Wood,Bruner, & Ross, 1976)

.

Level of Potential Development: Refers to what a student is not able to do independentlybut able to do under adult guidance or in collaboration withmore competent peers. Teaching should not happen at thislevel as it would not result in effective learning.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Refers to the area between the level of actual developmentand the level of potential development. Also known as theinstructional level, this is where instruction should befocused to drive the greatest learning gains for each student.

Level of Actual Development: Also referred to as the independent level, it encompassesskills a student has already mastered and can performindependently. Instruction focused here would not providea sufficient challenge for students.

As illustrated in the figure below, with the aid ofappropriate scaffolding, students can gain skillsand knowledge by completing tasks (withassistance as needed) until they are eventuallyable to complete them independently. Overtime, components initially performed by the teacherare completely taken over by the student. As

Morrissey and Brown (2009) state, �“the aim ofscaffolding is the ultimate transfer ofresponsibility for the task to the child as adultsupport decreases and child capabilityincreases�” (p.107).

BUILDING STUDENT SKILLS THROUGH SCAFFOLDING: GRADUAL RESPONSIBILITY TRANSFER FROM TEACHER TO STUDENT

Task: Week 1

The concept of the zone of proximaldevelopment has emerged in discussions ofother theories and instructional practices, suchas the use of formative assessment as ateaching tool (Heritage, 2010; Shepard, 2006).The common thread between formativeassessment practices and the practice ofidentifying and teaching within the ZPD is the

idea that in order for teaching and learning tobe effective, instruction should focus on skillsand knowledge that are attainable for students(not too easy, not too difficult, but just right).With constant feedback, or scaffolding, weknow that students�’ learning and understandingcan continue to develop at an appropriate pace.

Task: Week 2

Task: Week 3

Task: Week 4

Task: Week 5

Portion of task completed by the student

Portion of task completed by the teacher

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 4

What are the benefits of teaching in the ZPD? While the goal of teaching in the ZPD isultimately to benefit students, maintaining thistype of teaching and learning dynamic can also

provide substantial benefits for teachers andadministrators.

TEACHING IN THE ZONE: BENEFITS FOR STUDENTS, TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS

Students are provided with… Teachers could… Administrators could… challenging but reasonable

tasks that stimulate thinkingand motivate efforts tolearn

meaningful instruction andfeedback that helps drivefurther development at anappropriate pace

a learning environmentwhere they are valued asindividuals, a collaborativegroup, and a class

a learning environmentwhere their creativity andthought processes areacknowledged and accepted

identify and use areas ofstrength and weakness totailor learning experiencesat the individual and grouplevel

engage students in socialinteractions to enablelearning

better understand studentsas individual learners,learners in a small groupsetting and learners in alarger social setting

discover unique thoughtprocesses that differentstudents may use to solveproblems

promote higher qualitydifferentiated instruction inschools

emphasize better teacherstudent relationships

work with more motivatedteachers and students

How can I locate and teach in the ZPD?

Locating the ZPD requires a close examinationof each student as an individual learner. In turn,teaching in the ZPD involves providingscaffolding that is appropriate for theselearners. With an entire class, this can be a

challenge. On the next page, you�’ll find sixquestions and tips for teachers and instructionalspecialists to use as a guide as you make yourway identifying and teaching in the ZPD.

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 5

CHECKLIST: AM I TEACHING IN THE ZPD?

Questions to Ask Yourself ZPD Tip Example

1. Do I know what I want mystudents to understand bythe end of this unit?

Identify the target level of knowledge andunderstanding you want your students to attain(e.g. for the year, a specific unit or a specificconcept).

I want my students to be able add 1 digit numbers by theend of the unit.

2. Do I have an idea of theskills and knowledge thatstudents must have in orderto reach this level ofunderstanding?

Work backwards from the end of unit goal(s).Ask yourself: �“What needs to be understoodbefore this goal can be reached?�” Develop amodel of the learning progression that youexpect students to follow in order to attain thetargeted knowledge and understanding(Heritage, 2008).

Before my students can add with understanding, they haveto be able to:

Identify numbers 1 20 numerically and conceptually Count from 1 to 20 Use representational models and manipulatives(number line, snap cubes, drawings, objects)

3. Do the tasks and activities Ihave created help me seewhat my studentsunderstand and what theystill need to work on?

Create tasks, activities and problems that allowyou to gather information about students�’understanding of the topic at hand while theyare learning.

Whole group meetings will help students reviewprerequisite skills and introduce the new skill. Smallgroup/partner work will help students get hands onpractice through activities and worksheets. Interactivecomputer software with scaffolding will gather informationabout students�’ independent levels and ZPDs.

4. Am I observing, assessing,and listening to my studentsin order to understand thethought processes they areusing to arrive at theiranswers?

Observe, assess, and listen to student behaviorsand inquiries in response to the topic. Frequentassessments, whether formal or informal, allowpatterns of strengths and weaknesses toemerge both at the individual and group level.This will help you identify students�’ ZPDs.

During whole group instruction, I keep a mental note of theskills students display. During small group or partner work, Iwalk around, informally observing what they are able andunable to do. Individual conferences, class work andhomework allow me to see students performing at theirindependent level.

5. Am I adjusting myinstruction based on what Isee my students havegrasped and what they stillneed to work on?

Modify instruction, activities and groups basedon information you gather about what yourstudents can do independently, what they cando with peers, and what they are strugglingwith overall.

Joey, Anne, and Paul were able to follow along activelywhen we solved a problem as a whole class using objectsbut not when they worked in small groups using numberlines. They will be regrouped so that their strengths incounting objects can guide their number line skills.

6. Am I providing feedbackthat uses students�’ strengthsto build on theirweaknesses?

Work with small groups and individualstudents. Push their thinking by asking guidingquestions, modeling and providingdemonstrations as necessary.

To Joey, Anne, and Paul: �“How many M&M�’s are on yourtable? Where is that on the number line? How manyM&M�’s are in my hand? When you add this to the ones youhave, how many do we have all together? Let�’s try andshow this on the number line.�”

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 6

As discussed in the table on the previous page,whole group instruction, small group work,individual assessments, and interactivesoftware could all be used in the classroom tofocus on teaching in the ZPD. Knowledge gainedfrom these activities and instructional practiceswill enhance understanding, help studentscreate new interpretations, and stimulatedevelopment (Chaiklin, 2003).

Each of these components is also anopportunity for you to learn more about yourstudents while they work to gain understandingof new skills and information. Research hasshown that interactions between a child and amore competent peer or adult in whicheveryone is actively engaged tend to producehigher student achievement (Darling Hammond& Bransford, 2006; Pianta, 2006; Wasik, 2008).Common practices among highly effectiveteachers include tools and activities that:

1. Include clear goals and objectives2. Use available space and appropriate

resources3. Involve movement around the

classroom4. Include a range of individual, small

group, and whole group instruction5. Promote and encourage inquiries and

discussions (Darling Hammond &Bransford, 2006).

Individual assessments are also necessary inorder to identify each child�’s level of actualdevelopment (or more simply, what each childcan do independently). Fortunately, due toadvancements in technology, individualassessments are no longer limited to paper andpencil quizzes and homework. The followingchart provides guidelines for using variousinstructional methods and tools to identify theZPD and teach within it in your classroom:

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 7

GUIDELINES FOR USING MULTIPLE METHODS & TOOLS IN YOUR ZPD-CENTERED CLASSROOM

Method/Tool Guidelines Benefits Whole GroupInstruction

Teachers introduce a topic/unitwith models of what is expected.

Students share their work andthinking processes.

Teachers and students conclude atopic/unit by sharing thoughts andreflections.

Mutual objectives can be established byteachers and students upfront.

Opportunities for the development oflistening skills increase.

Different ways of approaching a problemare encouraged and explored.

Small GroupInstruction

Teachers present specific contentmost appropriate for each group ofstudents.

Teachers and students usemanipulatives to solve problemsand communicate ideas.

Teachers assess students�’understanding in greater depth.

Teaching and learning are focused on amore individualized level.

Active student engagement in learningincreases.

Opportunities to identify and work instudents�’ ZPDs emerge, as activities aretailored for each group based on studentperformance.

Small GroupPlay/Games

Students interact with, teach, andlearn from peers.

Teachers allow time for students toexplore, discover and create withmaterials provided to them.

Opportunities for the development ofsocial skills increase.

Students�’ feeling of autonomy increases. Students�’ creativity, imagination and

other strengths can be tapped.FormalIndividualAssessments

Teachers gain instructionallyvaluable information aboutstudents�’ independent thinking(NOT just for the purpose ofobtaining a number or grade).

Opportunities to identify students�’ actuallevel of development emerge.

Opportunities to identify students�’strengths and weaknesses arise.

Opportunities for teachers to work oneon one with students.

ComputerbasedAssessmentsand Tutorials

Teachers expose students to thesame content in a different (oftenvery engaging) context.

Teachers gather data on students�’progress and/or proficiency.

Software that includes scaffoldingsupports the teachers�’ efforts toteach within each student�’s ZPDand helps her do this efficiently on alarger scale.

Opportunities for students to be exposedto the same material in another contextand from a different perspective arise.

Opportunities for students to be moreactively engaged in learning through theuse of technology emerge.

Opportunities for teachers toindividualize assessment and instructionbased on every student�’s unique ZPDemerge without sacrificing valuableinstructional time.

InformalIndividualAssessments;Exit Slips

Teachers confirm whether or notthe planned learning took place,using a few simple questions at theend of a lesson.

Opportunities for teachers toimmediately identify and clarifymisunderstandings arise.

Opportunities to differentiate instructionemerge based on students�’ levels ofunderstanding following the initiallesson.

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 8

© 2012 Children’s Progress. All rights reserved. 9

How does the ZPD apply to 21st Century education? With a growing focus on differentiatinginstruction to meet each child�’s needs in thecontext of Response to Intervention (RTI), nowmore than ever, the concept of the ZPD iscritical to helping teachers target theirinstruction and ensure that all students areprogressing at an appropriate pace.

Technology based tools can be indispensable inthis regard. New computer based, web basedand mobile applications are being developed ata rapid pace. As noted in the table above, thesetools possess the potential to not only providestudents with an engaging virtual learningenvironment that is in some ways �“outside�” ofthe classroom, but to also collect the data thatteachers need in order to identify ZPDs anddifferentiate instruction quicker than ever whilealleviating the record keeping burden.

At the same time, technology cannot andshould not replace social interactions betweenstudents, peers, and teachers. Communicationand collaboration within the classroom isessential for building the learning environment

where students�’ cognitive processes and socialand emotional skills can develop.

In choosing appropriate technology based toolsto support our practice and help us locatestudents�’ ZPDs, we should always keep in mindthe fact that the utility of each tool depends onhow well we integrate the resulting data withina broader learning context. As we continue toincorporate the concept of the ZPD into ourpractice, let us focus on educationaltechnologies that:

assess the way we teach in theclassroom, incorporating timelyinstructional feedback (scaffolding) andadapting to each child as he or shelearns,

save instructional time by providing richdata that will allow us to individualizeinstruction quickly and effectively for allstudents,

are based on solid research aligned toeducational standards.

About Children's Progress

Children�’s Progress (www.childrensprogress.com) is an award winning educational technology company.We specialize in developing engaging, adaptive assessments for Pre K �– 3rd Grade that help you focus oneach student�’s ZPD. Named a Top 100 Product by District Administrationmagazine, the Children�’sProgress Academic Assessment (CPAA) is grounded in decades of research at Columbia University andMIT. We work with districts, schools and early learning centers nationwide to support the ongoingformative assessment process, inform Response to Intervention (RTI) implementations and drivedecision making. In 2012, we became part of Northwest Evaluation Association (NWEA), a global not forprofit educational services organization providing assessments, professional development, and research.

To learn how we can help you quickly identify student needs and differentiate instruction, request ademo for your early childhood team today: http://www.childrensprogress.com/cpaa/request demo/.

References Blanck, G. (1990). The man and his cause. In L.C. Moll (Ed). Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and

Applications of Sociohistorical Psychology (p.31 58). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Chaiklin, S. (2003). The zone of proximal development in Vygotsky�’s analysis of learning and instruction. In A.Kozulin, B. Gindix, V.S. Ageyev & S.M. Miller (Eds.). Vygotsky�’s educational theory in cultural context(pp.39 63). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Darling Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (2006). Preparping teachers for a changing world: What teachers shouldlearn and be able to do. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.

Gallimore, R. & Tharp, R. (1990). Teaching mind in society: Teaching, schooling, and literate discourse. In L.C. Moll(Ed). Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and Applications of Sociohistorical Psychology(p.175 205). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Heritage, M. (2008). Learning progressions: Supporting instruction and formative assessment.Washington, DC:Chief of Council State School Officers. Retrieved May 2, 2011, fromhttp://www.k12.wa.us/assessment/ClassroomAssessmentIntegration/pubdocs/FASTLearningProgressions.pdf

Heritage, M. (2010, September). Formative assessment and next generation assessment systems: Are we losing anopportunity?Washington, DC: Chief of Council of State School Officers. Retrieved April 29, 2011, fromhttp://www.edweek.org/media/formative_assessment_next_generation_heritage.pdf

Morrissey, A.M., & Brown, P.M. (2009). Mother and toddler activity in the zone of proximal development forpretend play as a predictor of higher child IQ. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53(2), p.106 120.

Pianta, R. (2006). Teacher child relationships and early literacy. In: D.K. Dickinson & S.B. Neuman (Eds.), Handbookof early literacy research: Vol. II (pp. 149 162). New York: The Guilford Press.

Shepard, L.A. (2006). Classroom assessment. In R.L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational measurement (4th ed., p.624 646).Westport, CT: Prager.

Tudge, J. (1990). Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development, and peer collaboration: Implications for classroompractice. In L.C. Moll (Ed). Vygotsky and Education: Instructional Implications and Applications ofSociohistorical Psychology (p.155 174). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Van Der Veer, R. (2007). Lev Vygotsky. In R. Bailey (Ed.). Continuum Library of Educational Thought Volume 10.New York, NY: Continuum International Publishing Group.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech (N. Minick, Trans.). In R. W. Rieber & A. S. Carton (Eds.), The collectedworks of L. S. Vygotsky: Vol. 1. Problems of general psychology (pp. 39 285). New York: Plenum Press.(Original work published 1934)

Wasik, B. (2008). When fewer is more: Small groups in early childhood classrooms. Early Childhood EducationJournal, 35, 515 521.

Wood, D. J., Bruner, J., & Ross, S. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology andPsychiatry, 17, 89 100.

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