© 2011 pearson education, inc. unit 1: introduction to apes chapters 1, 6, 7 this set of notes is...

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Unit 1: Introduction to APES

Chapters 1, 6, 7

This set of notes is much longer

than typical notes for this class will

be because it contains so much

background information. Do not be

intimidated by the number of slides,

just take the time to read and

understand the material thoroughly

in conjunction with the textbook in

preparation for your quiz and test.

Science and Sustainability: An Introduction to Environmental Science

Chapter 1


Environmental Science

Environment: all the living and non-living things around us (Animals, plants, forests, farms, etc., Continents, oceans, clouds, ice caps, Structures, urban centers, living spaces, Social relationships and institutions…..its a long list!)

Environmental science is the study of: How the natural world works and how the environment affects humans and vice versa We need to understand our interactions with the environment, to creatively solve

environmental problems Global conditions are rapidly changing, we are also rapidly gaining knowledge and the

opportunity to solve problems is still available An interdisciplinary field

Natural sciences: examines the natural world (Environmental science programs) Social sciences: examines values and human behavior (Environmental studies programs)

The fundamental insight of environmental science: Humans depend on a healthy, functioning planet, We are part of the natural world, but we can also change it, our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal

We depend completely on the environment for survival Increased health, longer lives, wealth, mobility, leisure But natural systems have been degraded by pollution, soil erosion, species extinction, etc. Environmental changes threaten long-term health and survival


We rely on natural resources and ecosystem services Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for survival,

Natural resources are “goods” produced by nature Renewable natural resources: can be replenished

Perpetually renewed: sunlight, wind, wave energy Renew themselves over short periods: timber, water, soil

These can be destroyed Nonrenewable natural resources: unavailable after depletion

Oil, coal, minerals Earth’s natural resources provide “services” to us

Ecosystem services: arise from the normal functioning of natural services Purify air and water, cycle nutrients, regulate climate Pollinate plants, receive and recycle wastes

We degrade ecosystem services by depleting resources, destroying habitat, generating pollution Increased human affluence has intensified degradation


Human population growth amplifies impacts

There are over 6.9 billion humans

Agricultural revolution Crops, livestock Stable food supplies

Industrial revolution Urbanized society

powered by fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)

Sanitation and medicines

Pesticides and fertilizers


Resource consumption exerts pressures

• Exploitation and consumption of resources is also a problem

• Garret Hardin’s tragedy of the commons: unregulated exploitation of public resources leads to depletion and damage

– Soil, air, water• Resource users are motivated by self interest

– They increase use until the resource is gone• Solutions to the tragedy of the commons?

– Private ownership?– Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use?– Governmental regulations?


Our “ecological footprint” and overshoot

Affluence increases consumption

Ecological footprint: the environmental impact of a person or population The area of biologically

productive land + water To supply raw resources and

dispose/recycle waste People in rich nations have

much larger ecological footprints

Overshoot: humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity to support us If everyone consumed the amount of

resources the U.S. does, we would need 4.5 Earths!

We are using renewable resources 30% faster than they are being replenished


Environmental science

Civilizations have fallen after degrading the environment, Civilizations succeed or fail according to how they interact with the environment along with how they respond to problems

Easter Island, Greek and Roman empires Once lush regions (i.e. Iraq) are now barren deserts Environmental science can help build a better

world Environment impacts Humans Its applied goal: solving environmental problems Solutions are applications of science


What is an “environmental problem”?

Whether an environmental condition is seen as a problem depends on the individual and situation Ex.: the pesticide DDT

In malaria-infested Africa: welcome because it kills malaria-carrying mosquitoes

In America: not welcome, due to health risks

People also differ in their awareness of problems, depending on who they are, where they live, what they do


Environmental science is not environmentalism

• Environmental science– Pursues knowledge about

the environment and our interactions with it

– Scientists try to remain objective and free from bias

• Environmentalism– A social movement – Tries to protect the natural

world from human-caused changes


Science asks and answers questions

It is an incremental approach to the truth Scientists do not simply accept conventional wisdom

They judge ideas by the strength of their evidence Observational (descriptive) science: information is

gathered about organisms, systems, processes, etc. Cannot be manipulated by experiments Phenomena are observed and measured Used in astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, genomics

Hypothesis-driven science: targeted research Experiments test hypotheses using the scientific method


The scientific method: a traditional approach that’s part of a larger process It tests ideas

Scientists in different fields approach problems differently

Assumptions: The universe works

according to unchanging natural laws

Events arise from causes, and cause other events

We use senses and reason to understand natural processes

It guards against faulty research Includes peer review,

publication, competition for funding


Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis Variable: a condition that can change Independent variable: can be manipulated Dependent variable: depends on the

independent variable Controlled experiment: the effects of all

variables are controlled Except the independent variable whose effect is

being tested Control: an unmanipulated point of comparison Quantitative data: uses numbers Qualitative data: does not use numbers


Hypotheses are tested in different waysManipulative experiments yield the strongest evidence

• Reveals causal relationships• Lots of things can’t be manipulated

Natural tests show real-world complexity• Results are not neat and clean• Answers aren’t black and white


Theories and paradigm shifts

• Theory: a well-tested and widely accepted explanation– Consolidates widely-supported, related hypotheses

• Paradigm shift – a dramatic upheaval in thought – It changes the dominant viewpoint

• Wicked problems: are complex, with no simple solution– I.e. environmental problems


Sustainability and the future of our world

Sustainability: we must live within our planet’s means So the Earth and its resources can sustain us and all life

for the future Sustainability involves conserving resources

Developing long-term solutions Keeping fully functioning ecosystems

Natural capital: Earth’s total wealth of resources We are withdrawing it faster that it’s being replenished We must live off Earth’s natural interest (replenishable

resources), not its natural capital


Population & consumption Population growth amplifies all human impacts

The growth rate has slowed, but we still add more than 200,000 people to the planet each day

Resource consumption has risen faster than population The 20 wealthiest nations have 55 times the

income of the 20 poorest nations Three times the gap that existed 40 years

ago Not everyone benefits equally from rising

affluence The ecological footprints of countries vary

greatly The U.S. footprint is much greater than the

world’s average


We face challenges in agriculture

Technology expanded food production – Nearly half of the land surface is used for agriculture– Chemical fertilizers and pesticides poison and change natural

systems– Erosion, climate change and poor management destroy millions

of acres each year– Agriculture, urban sprawl, and other land uses have

substantially affected most of the landscape of all nations


We face challenges in pollution

• Since the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations have risen by 39%, to the highest level in 800,000 years

• Waste products and artificial chemicals – Are used in farms, industries, and households– Contaminate land, water and air– Kill millions of people

• Humans are affecting the Earth’s climate– Melting glaciers– Rising sea levels– Impacted wildlife, forests, health and crops– Changed rainfall and increased storms


We face challenges in biodiversity

• Biodiversity: the cumulative number and diversity of living things

• Human actions have driven many species extinct

– Biodiversity is declining dramatically

– We are setting in motion a mass extinction event

– Biodiversity loss may be our biggest problem; once a species is extinct, it is gone forever


The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

• The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the condition of the world’s ecological systems

• In 2005, 2000 of the world’s leading scientists from 100 nations reported :

– Humans have drastically altered ecosystems – These changes have contributed to human well-

being and economic development, but at a cost– Environmental degradation could get much worse– Degradation can be reversed, but it requires work


Our energy choices will affect our future we need sustainable solutions

• The lives we live today are due to fossil fuels– Machines – Chemicals – Transportation – Products

• Fossil fuels are a one-time bonanza– Supplies will certainly decline– We have used up ½ of the world’s oil supplies; how

will we handle this imminent fossil fuel shortage?We must develop solutions that protect both our quality of life and the environment Renewable energy and efficiency Organic agriculture Legislation and technology to reduce pollution Protect species and their habitat Recycling, decreasing waste Decrease greenhouse gas emissions


Are things getting better or worse?

• Many people think environmental conditions are better– Cornucopians: human ingenuity will solve any problem

no matter how we act and treat the planet• Some think things are much worse

– Cassandras: predict doom and disaster, do not think we can continue on our current path without consequences

• How can you decide who is correct?– Are the impacts limited to humans, or are other

organisms or systems involved?– Are the proponents thinking in the long or short term?– Are they considering all costs and benefits?


Sustainable development

Development: purposeful changes to improve the quality of life The poor suffer the most from environmental degradation

Sustainable development: the use of resources to satisfy current needs Without compromising future availability of resources Involves environmental protection, economic well-being

and social equity Humans cannot exist without an intact, functioning

ecosystem It values and prioritizes environmental protection Human-made capital cannot substitute for natural capital


Will we develop in a sustainable way?

The triple bottom line: sustainable solutions that meet Environmental protection Economic goals Social equity

Humans must apply knowledge from the sciences to Limit environmental impacts Maintain functioning

environmental systems

We must make an ethical commitment to current and future generations

Environmental Ethics and Economics: Values and Choices

Chapter 6


Culture and worldview Our relationship with the environment depends on assessments of costs and benefits

But culture and worldview also affect this relationship

Ethics and economics give us tools to pursue the “triple bottom line” of sustainability

Culture = knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people

Worldview = a person’s or group’s beliefs about the meaning, operation, and essence of the world, how a person sees his or her place in the world

Many factors shape a person’s worldview

Religious and spiritual beliefs shape our worldview and perception of the environment

Community experiences shape attitudes

Political ideology: government’s role in protecting the environment

Economics

Vested interest = the strong interest of an individual in the outcome of a decision

Results in gain or loss for that individual


Environmental ethics and Ethical Standards

Ethics = Moral principles or values held by a person or society Relativists = ethics varies with social context Universalists = right and wrong remains the same across

cultures and situations

Ethics is a prescriptive pursuit: it tells us how we ought to behave

Ethical standards = criteria that help differentiate right from wrong Categorical imperative: the golden rule How can this apply to environmental science?

Principle of utility = something right produces the most practical benefits for the most people A uranium mine could benefit thousands of people


We value things in two ways

How we value something affects how we treat it Instrumental (utilitarian) value: valuing

something for its pragmatic benefits by using it Animals are valuable because we can eat them

Intrinsic (inherent) value: valuing something for its own sake because it has a right to exist Animals are valuable because they live their own lives People have granted intrinsic value and ethical

consideration to more and more people and things (Including animals, communities, and nature)

Non-Western cultures often have broader ethical domains

Things can have both instrumental and intrinsic value But different people emphasize different values


Environmental ethics Environmental ethics = application of ethical standards

to relationships between human and nonhuman entities Hard to resolve: it depends on the person’s ethical

standards and domain of ethical concern

Should we save resources for future generations?

Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to more pollution?

Should humans drive other species to extinction?

When is it OK to destroy a forest to create jobs?


Three ethical perspectives

Anthropocentrism = only humans have intrinsic value Biocentrism = some nonhuman life has intrinsic value Ecocentrism = whole ecological systems have value

A holistic perspective that preserves connections


History of Environmental Ethics

• John Ruskin: people no longer appreciated nature• The Industrial Revolution increased consumption and

pollution• Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau’s

Walden• Transcendentalism = nature is a manifestation of the

divine• People need to experience nature

• John Muir had an ecocentric viewpoint• Unspoiled nature should be protected

for its own intrinsic value, this is preservation• He was a tireless advocate for wilderness


History of environmental ethics

• Gifford Pinchot had an anthropocentric viewpoint

• Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the most people (the utilitarian standard) this is conservation

• Aldo Leopold believed the land ethic changes the role of people from conquerors of the land to citizens of it

• Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts

• The land ethic can help guide decision making


History of environmental ethics

• Ecofeminism = the female worldview interprets the world through interrelationships and cooperation• Some scholars feel that male-dominated societies cause both

social and environmental problems

• Domination and competition degrade women and the environment

• Environmental justice = the fair and equitable treatment of all people regarding environmental issues– The poor and minorities have less information, power, and

money

– Significant inequities remain despite progress toward racial equality

– Economic gaps between rich and poor have widened– Minorities and the poor still suffer substandard environmental conditions

– Examples: Native American miners, Hurricane Katrina


Environmental justice: an international issue Pollution can not be stopped at the boarders of

countries: how would you stop air pollution at a boarder?

Wealthy nations impose pollution on poorer nations Companies pay poor nations to take their hazardous

waste It is dumped illegally It may be falsely labeled as harmless or beneficial Workers are uninformed or unprotected

The Basel Convention prohibits international export of waste but illegal trade and dumping continue The United States has not ratified this treaty


The environment vs. economics

• Friction occurs between ethical and economic impulses

• Is there a trade-off between economics and the environment?

– People say protection costs too much money, interferes with progress, or causes job loses

– But environmental protection is good for the economy

• Traditional economic thought ignores or underestimates contributions of the environment to the economy

– Human economies depend on the environment


Economics

• Economics studies how people use resources to provide goods and services in the face of demand

• Economy = a social system that converts resources into: Goods (manufactured materials that are bought) and Services (work done for others as a form of business)

• Types of Economies• Subsistence economy = people get their daily needs

directly from nature or their own production, they do not purchase or trade products

• Capitalist market economy = buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and services

• Centrally planned economy = the government determines how to allocate resources

• Mixed economy = governments intervene to some extent


Governments intervene in a market economy The United States has a mixed market based

on a capitalist economy Even in mixed market economies,

governments intervene to:– Eliminate unfair advantages held by single buyers or

sellers

– Provide social services (national defense, medical care, education)

– Provide safety nets for elderly, disaster victims, etc.

– Manage the commons

– Mitigate pollution and other threats to health and quality of life


The economy exists within the environment• Economies receive inputs

(resources)– Process them– Discharge outputs (waste)

• Traditional economics (only the yellow box in the diagram)– Ignores the environment– Resources are “limitless”– Wastes are absorbed at no

cost


Environmental systems support economies

• Environmental goods = natural resources (sun’s energy, water, trees, rocks, fossil fuels)

• Ecosystem services = essential services support the life that makes economic activities possible

* Soil formation * Pollination

* Water purification * Nutrient cycling

* Climate regulation * Waste treatment

• Economic activities affect the environment– Depleting natural resources, generating pollution


Classical versus Neoclassical Economics• Classical economics: when people pursue

economic self-interest in a competitive marketplace

• Adam Smith said The market is guided by an “invisible hand”

• Society benefits

• This idea is a pillar of free-market thought today

• It is also blamed for economic inequality between rich and poor

• Critics feel that market capitalism promotes environmental degradation

• Neoclassical economics: takes into account psychology

• What psychological factors underlie consumer choices?• Market prices reflect supply vs. demand

• Buyers vs. sellers• The “right” quantities of a product are produced• “Optimal” levels of pollution, resource use


Cost-benefit analysis

• Cost-benefit analysis = costs of a proposed action are compared to benefits that result from the action

– If benefits > costs: pursue the action• Cost-benefit analysis is controversial: not all costs

and benefits can be identified or defined– It is easy to quantify wages paid to miners– But hard to assess the cost of a scarred landscape

• Monetary benefits are overrepresented– Analysis is biased in favor of economic development– Biased against environmental protection


Neoclassical economics assume resources are unlimited Capitalist market systems operate according to neoclassical economics

Enormous wealth and jobs are generated

Environmental problems are also created

Assumptions of neoclassical economics:

Resources are infinite or substitutable or a replacement resource will be found

Costs and benefits are internal (see next slides for explanation)

Long-term effects are discounted (see next slides for explanation)

Growth is good (see next slides for explanation)

Goods and services are treated as “free gifts of nature”, Infinitely abundant, resilient, and substitutable

But Earth’s resources are limited

Nonrenewable resources can be depleted

Renewable resources (e.g., forests) can also be depleted


Neoclassical systems assume costs and benefits are internal

Only the buyer and seller experience costs and benefits

Pricing ignores social, environmental, or economic costs of pollution and degradation

Externalities = costs or benefits involving people other than the buyer or seller

External costs = borne by someone not involved in a transaction

External costs include water pollution, health problems, property damage, and harm to other organism

Governments develop laws and regulations

But how do you assign monetary value to illness?


Neoclassical systems assume long term effects are discounted

A future event counts less than a present one Discounting = short-term costs and benefits are

more important than long-term costs and benefits Present conditions are more important than future

ones Cutting trees now brings in more money than cutting

them in the future Policymakers ignore long-term consequences of

actions Puts costs of degradation, resource depletion,

pollution on to future generations


Neoclassical systems assume growth is good (we live in a growth oriented economy) Economic growth = an increase in an economy’s production and

consumption of goods It is necessary to maintain social order

Promoting economic growth creates opportunities for poor to become wealthier Progress is measured by economic growth

But economic activity and true wealth are not the same Affluenza = material goods do not always bring contentment Runaway growth can destroy our economic system

Growth is used to measure progress All economic growth is seen as good and necessary

Modern global economic growth is unprecedented Higher trade, production, amount and value of goods

The United States has a “more and bigger” attitude Americans are in a frenzy of consumption

The dramatic rise in per-person consumption has severe environmental consequences

Is the growth paradigm good for us?


Can growth go on forever?

Economic growth comes from:

Increased inputs (labor, natural resources)

Economic development = improved efficiency of production (technology, ideas, equipment)

Uncontrolled economic growth is unsustainable

Technology can push back limits, but not forever

Efficient resource extraction and production perpetuate the illusion that resources are unlimited

Many economists believe technology can solve anything


Cornucopians vs. Cassandras (Remember these from Chapter 1?)

Cornucopians = economists, businesspeople, policymakers Improved technology allows continued economic

growth Human innovation, technologies, and market forces

increase access to resources and avoid depletion Cassandras = scientists and others

Limits to Growth, Beyond the Limits, Limits to Growth: The Thirty-year Update

Computer models predict economic collapse as resources become scarce


Other types of economies

Environmental economics = unsustainable economies have high population growth and inefficient resource use Modify neoclassical economics to increase efficienc and calls for reform

Ecological economics = civilizations cannot overcome environmental limitations Endless economic growth is not possible, this calls for revolution

Steady-state economies mirror natural ecological systems—they neither grow nor shrink As resources became harder to find, economic growth slows and stabilizes

(John Stuart Mill, 1806–1873) Individuals and societies exist on steady flows of natural resources

Herman Daly does not think a steady state will evolve on its own We must fundamentally change our economics This does not mean a lower quality of life Technology and behavior will enhance sustainability


Measuring Economic Progress: GDP versus GPI

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = the total monetary value of goods and services a nation produces Does not account for nonmarket value

Does not express only desirable economic activity

Pollution, oil spills, disasters, etc. increase GDP

Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) = differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity

Positive contributions (e.g., volunteer work) not paid for with money are added to economic activity

Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted


More green accounting indicators

These indicators give a more accurate indication of a nation’s welfare Very controversial, hard to practice

Net Economic Welfare (NEW) = adjusts GDP by adding the value of leisure time and personal transactions While deducting costs of environmental degradation

Human Development Index = assesses a nation’s standard of living, life expectancy, and education

Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW) = based on income, wealth distribution, resource depletion


Valuing ecosystem goods and services Our society mistreats the very systems that sustain it

The market ignores/undervalues ecosystem values

Nonmarket values = values not included in the price of a good or service (e.g., ecological, cultural, spiritual)

Contingent valuation = uses surveys to determine how much people are willing to pay to protect or restore a resource Measures expressed preferences

But since people don’t really pay, they may overinflate values

Revealed preferences = revealed by actual behavior Time, money, effort people spend

Measures actual costs of restoration, cleanup, etc.


The global value of all ecosystem services

The global economic value of all ecosystem services equals $46 trillion More than the GDP

of all nations combined

Protecting land gives 100 times more value than converting it to some other use


Markets can fail and can counter failure

Market failure = occurs when markets ignore the environment’s positive impact and the negative effects of activities on the environment or people (external costs)

Government intervention counters market failure

Laws and regulations

Green taxes = penalize harmful activities

Economic incentives to promote fairness, conservation, and sustainability (e.g., pollution permits)

Another intervention is Ecolabeling which tells consumers which brands use environmentally benign processes, this is a powerful incentive for businesses to change

Dolphin-safe tuna, organic food

Finally, Socially responsible investing in sustainable companies is another intervention

$2.7 trillion in 2007


Corporations are responding to concerns and offering “green” options

Industries, businesses, and corporations make money by “greening” their operations

Ben & Jerry’s (ice cream), Patagonia (clothing) Industries donate to environmental groups, preserve land, etc. Manufacturers use recycled materials, cut energy use, etc. Local sustainable businesses Large corporations are riding the “green wave” of consumer preference for

sustainable products

McDonald’s, Starbucks, Intel, Ford, Dow, etc. Greenwashing: consumers are misled into thinking companies are acting

more sustainably than they are

“Pure” bottled water may not be safer or better Any changes made by large companies will help

Hewlett-Packard, Wal-Mart Corporate actions hinge on consumer behavior

People must support sustainable economics

Chapter 7


Environmental policy

Policy = a formal set of general plans and principles to address problems and guide decision making

Public policy = made by governments Laws, regulations, orders, incentives, and

practices intended to advance societal welfare

Environmental policy = pertains to human interactions with the environment Regulates resource use/reduces pollution

to promote welfare and/or protect resources

Science, ethics, and economics help formulate policy

Science = provides information and analysis

Ethics and economics = clarify how society can address problems

Government interacts with citizens, organizations, and the private sector


Policies prevent the tragedy of the commons and free riders

Capitalist markets are driven by short-term profit not long-term social or environmental stability, there is little incentive to minimize impacts Market failure justifies government intervention to develop

policies to prevent Tragedy of the Commons and Free Riders Tragedy of the commons = commonly held resources will

become overused and degraded Best prevented by oversight and regulations Traditional societies may safeguard against exploitation Privatization works if property rights are clear

Does not work with air, water, etc. Free riders = reducing pollution tempts people to cheat , free

riders avoid sacrifices made by others and get a “free ride” Private voluntary efforts are less effective than efforts

mandated by public policies that require all parties sacrifice equally


Policies address external costs

Environmental policies aim to promote fairness by dealing with external costs

External costs = harmful impacts of market transactions are borne by people not involved in the transaction

Polluter pays principal = polluters cover costs of impacts

Environmental policy goals = to protect resources against the tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs


Many factors hinder environmental policy

Why are environmental laws challenged, ignored, and rejected by citizens and policymakers?

Environmental policy involves government regulations Property owners and businesspeople think regulations are

inconvenient and cause economic loss

Problems develop gradually and over the long term Human behavior is geared toward short-term needs

Businesses opt for short-term economic gain

News media have short attention spans

Politicians act out of short-term interest


The U.S. has pioneered innovative policies and are role models and influence for other nations

Legislative branch = Congress creates statutory law

Executive branch = enacts or vetoes legislation Laws are implemented and executed

by agencies Executive orders = specific legal

instructions for government agencies Judicial branch = interprets laws

Precedents = guides for later cases Lawsuits are filed for and against

protection Administrative agencies = the “fourth

branch” Established by the president or

Congress as a source of policy through regulation, they monitor and enforce compliance

Regulations = specific rules or requirements to achieve objectives of broadly written statutory laws

Framework of U.S. policy federal policy


State and local governmental policies States, counties, and municipalities also generate environmental

policies They can experiment with novel concepts California, New York, and Massachusetts have strong environmental laws,

well-funded agencies, and citizens value protecting the environment State laws cannot violate principles of the U.S. Constitution (If

laws conflict, federal laws take precedence). Rarely, federal laws may force states to change

Federal policymakers can give financial incentives to encourage change (this works, if funds are adequate)

“Cooperative federalism” = an agency works with state agencies to achieve national standards

Despite pressure to weaken laws, federal control is vital to protect all citizens One national effort is more efficient than 50 efforts Transboundary disputes are minimized


Constitutional amendments Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution

Prohibits denying “equal protection of its laws” The constitutional basis for environmental justice

Fifth Amendment = takings clause Bans the literal taking of private property Also bans regulatory taking, which deprives a property owner of

economic uses of the property Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council

In 1992 the Supreme Court ruled that a state law intending to prevent serious public harm violated the takings clause

Lucas, a land developer, was allowed to build homes on beachfront property

Although a state agency had prohibited construction on the property

There is a sensitive balance between private rights and the public good


Early U.S. environmental policy

From 1780s to the late 1800s, promoted settlement and extraction of resources

Increased prosperity for citizens and railroad companies and relieved crowding in Eastern cities, but displaced millions of Native Americans

People believed land was infinite and inexhaustible

General Land Ordinances of 1785 and 1787

The federal government managed unsettled lands, surveying/readying them for sale

Homestead Act (1862) = anyone could buy or settle on 160 acres of public land

General Mining Act (1878) = people could mine on public land for $5/acre with no government oversight

Timber Culture Act (1873) = 160 acres to anyone promising to plant trees on 25% of that land


The second wave of U.S. policy Public perception and government policy shifted

because of problems caused by westward expansion People began to understand that the West’s

resources were exhaustible and required legal protection

Yellowstone National Park, the world’s first national park, opened in 1872 Also, national wildlife refuges, parks, and forests

Land management policies addressed soil conservation The 1964 Wilderness Act preserves pristine land


The third wave of U.S. environmental policy (Modern Policy) Mid-to late-20th century people were better

off economically but lived with dirtier air, dirtier water, and more waste and toxic chemicals

The public demanded more environmental protection

Increased awareness of environmental problems shifted public priorities and policies

Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) described the ecological and health effects of pesticides and chemicals

Most Americans support environmental protection

Millions of people celebrate Earth Day each April


The National Environmental Policy Act (1970) and the EPA The Council on Environmental Quality created the NEPA and began

the modern era of environmental policy Requires an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for any

federal action that might significantly impact the environment and forces the government and businesses to evaluate the environmental impacts of a project

Its cost-benefit approach usually does not halt projects It provides incentives to decrease damage and citizens are

granted input President Nixon’s executive order created the Environmental

Protection Agency (EPA) Conducts and evaluates research, monitors environmental quality ,

sets and enforces standards for pollution levels, assists states in meeting standards and goals, educates the public

The EPA is a leading agency in developing solutions to pollution


Significant environmental laws

The public demanded a cleaner environment and supported tougher environmental legislation


Modern policy and a possible 4th wave?

Several factors converged to allow major advances in environmental policy in the 1960s and 1970s Wide evidence of environmental problems and people could

visualize policies to deal with problems, the political climate was ripe, with a supportive public and leaders who were willing to act

Congress strengthened and elaborated laws in the 1980s Amendments to the Clean Water and Clean Air Acts

By 1990, many felt that regulations were too strict, attempts were made to weaken federal laws by Reagan and George W. Bush

It is thought that typically Republicans do not support increasing environmental policy, while Democrats do, but be careful to understand that this is a generalization and is not always true

Current government (since 2008), has started increasing environmental movements, this fourth wave of policy focuses on sustainability, safeguarding ecosystems while raising living standards


3 approaches to policy:#1 Using the court system Before legislation, lawsuits addressed U.S. policy

issues Tort law = deals with one entity harming another

Nuisance law = individuals suffering from pollution would seek redress through lawsuits

Courts make polluters stop through injunctions or fines But justices were reluctant to hinder industry

In Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Company, the company had to pay people for damages but could still operate The market decides between right and wrong This is not a viable option to prevent pollution


Command-and-control approach: a regulating agency sets rules or limits Threatening punishment for violators It brings cleaner air, water, safer workplaces, etc.

Government actions may be well-intentioned But not well-informed Interest groups—people seeking private gain—unduly

influence politicians and work against public interests

Citizens may view policies as restrictions on freedom Those policies will not remain in force

3 approaches to policy:#2 Government Control


Other approaches use innovation and efficiency to benefit the public Aim to internalize external costs Taxes discourage undesirable activities

Green taxes = tax environmentally harmful activities Businesses reimburse the public for damage they

cause The more pollution, the higher the tax payment Give companies financial incentives to reduce

pollution with freedom to decide how to do so But costs are passed on to consumers

3 approaches to policy:#3: Market control


Subsidies promote certain activities

Subsidy = a government giveaway of cash or resources to encourage a particular activity

Tax break = helps an entity by relieving its tax burden They have been used to support unsustainable activities Nations give $1.45 trillion/year in harmful subsidies

Environmentally Harmful Subsidies From 2002 to 2008, U.S. fossil fuel companies received $72 billion of taxpayer money, while

renewable energy received only $29 billion The General Mining Act of 1872

Mining companies get $500 million–$1 billion in minerals from U.S. public lands each year, but they don’t pay a penny in royalties to taxpayers

The government has given away $250 billion in mineral resources Mining activities have polluted 40% of Western watersheds

The U.S. Forest Service spends $35 million of taxpayer moneyper year building roads for logging companies Companies sell the trees for profit


Harnessing market dynamics

Governments use financial incentives in direct and selective ways Subsidies and green taxes

Financial incentives and market dynamics can also help in obtaining policy goals Ecolabeling = sellers advertise that they use

sustainable practices Businesses win consumer confidence and

outcompete less sustainably produced brands


Permit trading saves money

Permit trading = a government-created market in permits for an environmentally harmful activies; businesses buy, sell, trade these permits

Cap-and-trade emissions trading system = the government sets pollution levels (“caps”) and issues permits Polluters can buy, sell, and trade these permits, so pollution is

reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions A cap-and-trade system in the U.S. mandates lower sulfur

dioxide emissions Emissions have decreased by 43% Cuts were obtained cheaper and more efficiently than

command-and-control regulation With no effects on supply or economic growth

Markets in carbon emissions are sprouting up


Market incentives and public-private partnershipsMarket IncentivesMunicipalities charge residents for waste disposal, according to the amount of waste generatedSome cities give rebates for buying water-efficient appliancesPower utilities give discounts to those buying efficient lightbulbs and appliancesWell-planned market incentives can reduce environmental impact while minimizing costs to industry, thus easing concerns about government intrusion

Public-private partnership = a for-profit entity does the workA private entity acts as overseerPublic policy goals will be achieved in a timely, cost-effective manner

Private entities try to maximize efficiencyIt is challenging to design workable partnerships while serving both private and public interests


Step 1: Identify a problem

This requires curiosity, observation, record keeping, and an awareness of our relationship with the environment.

Seven steps to making environmental policy

Creating environmental policy has several steps

Step 2: Pinpoint causes of the problem

• Involves scientific research

• Risk assessment = judging risks a problem poses to health or the environment

Step 3: Envision a solution

Risk management = developing strategies to minimize risk Involves social or political action

Step 4: Get organized

Organizations are more effective than individuals But a motivated, informed individual can also succeed

Step 5: Cultivate access and influence

• Lobbying = spending time and money to influence a politician- Environmental advocates are not the most influential lobbyists

Step 6: Shepherd the solution into law

Prepare a bill, or draft law, containing solutions Find members of the House and Senate to introduce the bill

and shepherd it through committees The bill may become law or die in various ways

Step 7: Implement, assess, and interpret policy

Following a law’s enactment Administrative agencies implement regulations Policymakers and others evaluate the policy’s successes or

failures The judicial branch interprets the law


Who influences the policy process?

Political Action Committees (PACs) raise money for political campaigns Corporations and industries can not make direct campaign

contribution, so they establish PACs to help candidates win

ScienceEffective decisions are informed by scientific research

A nation’s strength depends on its commitment to scienceSometimes policymakers ignore science

They let political ideology determine policy Government scientists have had their work censored, suppressed,

or edited and their jobs threatened Unqualified people were put into power Most scientists greeted President Obama with relief


International Environmental Policy

Environmental problems are not restricted by national borders

Customary law = practices or customs held by most cultures

Conventional law = from conventions or treaties Montreal Protocol = nations agreed to reduce ozone-

depleting chemicals

Kyoto Protocol = reduces fossil fuel emissions causing climate change

Nations can also make progress through multilateral agreements, hard work, and diplomacy


Organizations shape international policy International organizations influence nations through funding, peer pressure, and media

attention United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Helps nations understand and solve environmental problems The World Bank = one of the world’s largest funding sources for economic development

(Dams, irrigation, infrastructure) Funds unsustainable, environmentally damaging projects

The European Union (EU) seeks to promote Europe’s unity, economic and social progress Can sign binding treaties and enact regulations Can also issue advisory directives Sees environmental regulations as barriers to trade

The World Trade Organization (WTO) Represents multinational corporations and promotes free trade Can impose penalties on nations that don’t comply with its directives Interprets environmental laws as unfair barriers to trade

Brazil and Venezuela filed a complaint against U.S. regulations requiring cleaner-burning fuel, and the WTO agreed with Brazil and Venezuela, despite threats to human health

Critics charge the WTO aggravates environmental problems


NGOs

Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) = entities that influence international policy

ENGOs (environmental NGOs) = groups advocating for environmental protection

Some do not get politically involved

Others try to shape policy through research, education, lobbying, or protest


International institutions weld influence

Globalization is making our world more interconnected Societies and ecosystems are being changed at

unprecedented rates Trade and technology allow increased consumption

Consumptive nations exert incredible impacts Multinational corporations operate outside the reach

of national laws They don’t have the incentive to conserve resources or

act sustainably Organizations and institutions that shape policy are

vital

© 2011 pearson education, inc. unit 1: introduction to apes chapters 1, 6, 7 this set of notes is...

Documents

nonrenewable natural

natural systems

consumption of resources

depleting resources

environmental science

pearson education

environmental changes

survival slide