© 2015 pearson education, inc. figure 14.11 schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities....

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.11 Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities. Digestion Defecation Mechanical breakdown Ingestion Propulsion Absorption Food Pharynx Esophagus Chewing (mouth) Churning (stomach) Segmentation (small intestine) Swallowing (oropharynx) Peristalsis (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) Stomach Lymph vessel Blood vessel Mainly H 2 O Feces Anus Small intestine Large intestine

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 14.1 The human digestive system: Alimentary canal and accessory organs. Mouth (oral cavity) Tongue Esophagus Parotid gland Sublingual gland Submandibular gland Salivary glands Pharynx Stomach Pancreas (Spleen) Transverse colon Descending colon Ascending colon Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anal canal Anus Small intestine Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Liver Gallbladder Large intestine

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.12 Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract. (a) (b)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.12a Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract. (a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.12b Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract. (b)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.3 Basic structure of the alimentary canal wall. Visceral peritoneum Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Submucosal glands Mucosa Surface epithelium Lamina propria Muscle layer Submucosa Muscularis externa Serosa Longitudinal muscle layer Circular muscle layer (visceral peritoneum) Lumen Lymphoid tissue Duct of gland outside alimentary canal Gland in mucosa Nerve Artery Vein Mesentery

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.5b Peritoneal attachments of the abdominal organs. Anus Rectum Peritoneal cavity Mesenteries Transverse colon Duodenum Pancreas Lesser omentum Diaphragm Liver Stomach Greater omentum Small intestine Uterus Urinary bladder Parietal peritoneum Visceral peritoneum (b)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.2a Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity). Hard palate Oral cavity Lips (labia) Vestibule Lingual frenulum Tongue Hyoid bone Trachea (a) Esophagus Laryngopharynx Epiglottis Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Palatine tonsil Uvula Soft palate Nasopharynx

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth. (2 of 2) Incisors Canine (eyetooth) Premolars (bicuspids) Molars Permanent teeth Third molar (wisdom tooth) (1725 yr) Second molar (1213 yr) First molar (67 yr) Second premolar (1213 yr) First premolar (11 yr) Central (7 yr) Lateral (8 yr)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.10 Longitudinal section of a molar. Crown Enamel Neck Root Dentin Pulp cavity (contains blood vessels and nerves) Gum (gingiva) Cement Root canal Periodontal membrane (ligament) Bone

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance 14.15 A baby born with a cleft lip and palate.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.2b Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity). Hard palate Soft palate Uvula Palatine tonsil Oropharynx Tongue (b) Upper lip Gingivae (gums)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.2a Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity). Hard palate Oral cavity Lips (labia) Vestibule Lingual frenulum Tongue Hyoid bone Trachea (a) Esophagus Laryngopharynx Epiglottis Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Palatine tonsil Uvula Soft palate Nasopharynx

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.14 Swallowing. Upper esophageal sphincter contracted Bolus of food Tongue Pharynx Epiglottis up Glottis (lumen) of larynx Upper esophageal sphincter Larynx up Esophagus Uvula Bolus Epiglottis down (b)Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed (c)Upper esophageal sphincter contracted Bolus Relaxed muscles Cardioesophageal sphincter open (d) Cardioesophageal sphincter relaxed Trachea (a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.14a Swallowing. Upper esophageal sphincter contracted Bolus of food Tongue Pharynx Epiglottis up Glottis (lumen) of larynx Upper esophageal sphincter Esophagus Trachea (a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.14b Swallowing. Larynx up Esophagus Uvula Bolus Epiglottis down (b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.14c Swallowing. (c)Upper esophageal sphincter contracted Bolus

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.14d Swallowing. Relaxed muscles Cardioesophageal sphincter open (d) Cardioesophageal sphincter relaxed

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4a Anatomy of the stomach. Esophagus Cardia Fundus Serosa Body Rugae of mucosa Greater curvature Pyloric antrum Pyloric sphincter (valve) Duodenum Pylorus Lesser curvature Oblique layer Circular layer Longitudinal layer Muscularis externa (a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4b Anatomy of the stomach. Fundus Body Rugae of mucosa Pyloric sphincter Pyloric antrum (b)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach. Pyloric sphincter Gastric pits Gastric pit Gastric gland Surface epithelium Mucous neck cells Parietal cells Gastric glands Chief cells (c)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach. Chief cells Enteroendocrine cell (d) Pepsinogen HCI Pepsin Parietal cells

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.15 Peristaltic waves in the stomach. 1 2 3 Pyloric valve closed Pyloric valve slightly opened Pyloric valve closed Propulsion: Peristaltic waves move from the fundus toward the pylorus. Grinding: The most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus. The pyloric end of the stomach acts as a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into the duodenum. Retropulsion: The peristaltic wave closes the pyloric valve, forcing most of the contents of the pylorus backward into the stomach.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.6 The duodenum of the small intestine and related organs. Right and left hepatic ducts from liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Pancreas Jejunum Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Duodenum Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Duodenal papilla Gallbladder

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.7 Structural modifications of the small intestine. Blood vessels serving the small intestine Muscle layers Villi Lumen Circular folds (plicae circulares) Absorptive cells Lacteal Blood capillaries Lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Muscularis mucosae (b)Villi Venule Lymphatic vessel Submucosa Villus (c)Absorptive cells Microvilli (brush border) (a) Small intestine

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.7a Structural modifications of the small intestine. Blood vessels serving the small intestine Muscle layers Villi Lumen Circular folds (plicae circulares) (a) Small intestine

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.7b Structural modifications of the small intestine. Absorptive cells Lacteal Blood capillaries Lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Muscularis mucosae (b)Villi Venule Lymphatic vessel Submucosa Villus

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.7c Structural modifications of the small intestine. (c)Absorptive cells Microvilli (brush border)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.8 The large intestine. Right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse colon Haustrum Ascending colon Ileum (cut) Ileocecal valve Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal External anal sphincter Sigmoid colon Teniae coli Cut edge of mesentery Descending colon Transverse mesocolon Left colic (splenic) flexure

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth. Incisors Canine (eyetooth) Molars Incisors Canine (eyetooth) Premolars (bicuspids) Molars Permanent teeth Third molar (wisdom tooth) (1725 yr) Second molar (1213 yr) First molar (67 yr) Second premolar (1213 yr) First premolar (11 yr) Central (7 yr) Lateral (8 yr) Second molar (about 2 yr) Deciduous (milk) teeth First molar (1015 mo) (1620 mo) Lateral (810 mo) Central (68 mo)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth. (1 of 2) Incisors Canine (eyetooth) Molars Second molar (about 2 yr) Deciduous (milk) teeth First molar (1015 mo) (1620 mo) Lateral (810 mo) Central (68 mo)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.13 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. Digestion of carbohydrates Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Absorption of carbohydrates Digestion of proteins Absorption of proteins Digestion of fats Absorption of fats Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the lacteals of the villi and are transported to the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct. (Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into the capillary blood in the villi and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.) Monoglycerides and fatty acids Glycerol and fatty acids Pancreatic lipase Small intestine Emulsified by the detergent action of bile salts from the liver Unemulsified fats *Oligosaccharides consist of a few linked monosaccharides. Amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, and dipeptidase) Amino acids (some dipeptides and tripeptides) Small polypeptides, small peptides Large polypeptides Protein Pepsin (stomach glands) in the presence of HCI Stomach Small intestine The monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Brush border enzymes in small intestine (dextrinase, glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, and sucrase) Small intestine GalactoseGlucose Fructose LactoseMaltoseSucrose Oligosaccharides* and disaccharides Starch and disaccharides Salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase Mouth Small intestine Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.13 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (1 of 3) Digestion of carbohydrates Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Absorption of carbohydrates The monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Brush border enzymes in small intestine (dextrinase, glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, and sucrase) Small intestine GalactoseGlucose Fructose LactoseMaltose Sucrose Oligosaccharides* and disaccharides Starch and disaccharides Salivary amylase Pancreatic amylase Mouth Small intestine *Oligosaccharides consist of a few linked monosaccharides.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.13 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (2 of 3) Digestion of proteins Absorption of proteins Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, and dipeptidase) Amino acids (some dipeptides and tripeptides) Small polypeptides, small peptides Large polypeptides Protein Pepsin (stomach glands) in the presence of HCI Stomach Small intestine Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) Amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.13 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (3 of 3) Digestion of fats Absorption of fats Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the lacteals of the villi and are transported to the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct. (Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into the capillary blood in the villi and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.) Monoglycerides and fatty acids Glycerol and fatty acids Pancreatic lipase Small intestine Emulsified by the detergent action of bile salts from the liver Unemulsified fats

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.16 Regulation of pancreatic juice and bile secretion and release. 1 2 3 4 5 Chyme entering duodenum causes duodenal enteroendocrine cells to release cholecytokinin (CCK) and secretin. CCK (red dots) and secretin (blue dots) enter the bloodstream. Upon reaching the pancreas, CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice; secretin causes secretion of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice. Secretin causes the liver to secrete more bile; CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release stored bile and the hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax (allows bile from both sources to enter the duodenum). Stimulation by vagal nerve fibers cause release of pancreatic juice and weak contractions of the gallbladder.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act in Digestion (1 of 2).

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act in Digestion (2 of 2).

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. A Closer Look 14.1 Peptic Ulcers: Something Is Eating at Me. Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach (b) H. pylori bacteria(a) A peptic ulcer lesion

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. A Closer Look 14.1a Peptic Ulcers: Something Is Eating at Me. (a) A peptic ulcer lesion

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. A Closer Look 14.1b Peptic Ulcers: Something Is Eating at Me. Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach (b) H. pylori bacteria

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their Major Nutrients (1 of 2).

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their Major Nutrients (2 of 2).

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.17 Two visual food guides. Red meat, butter: use sparingly Vegetables in abundance Whole-grain foods at most meals Daily exercise and weight control Plant oils at most meals Fruits: 23 servings Nuts, legumes: 13 servings Fish, poultry, eggs: 02 servings Dairy or calcium supplement: 12 servings White rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta, sweets: use sparingly (a)Healthy Eating Pyramid (b)USDAs MyPlate

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.17a Two visual food guides. Red meat, butter: use sparingly Vegetables in abundance Whole-grain foods at most meals Daily exercise and weight control Plant oils at most meals Fruits: 23 servings Nuts, legumes: 13 servings Fish, poultry, eggs: 02 servings Dairy or calcium supplement: 12 servings White rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta, sweets: use sparingly (a) Healthy Eating Pyramid

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.17b Two visual food guides. (b) USDAs MyPlate

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.18 The eight essential amino acids. Tryptophan Methionine Beans and other legumes Valine Threonine Phenylalanine Leucine Isoleucine Lysine Corn and other grains

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.19 Summary equation for cellular respiration. C 6 H 12 O 6 + O2O2 6 CO 2 6 + 6 H2OH2O + ATP Glucose Oxygen gas Carbon dioxide Water Energy

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.20 During cellular respiration, ATP is formed in the cytosol and in the mitochondria. CO 2 H2OH2O 1 2 3 Chemical energy (high-energy electrons) Chemical energy Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Mitochondrion Via oxidative phosphorylation 28 ATP 2 ATP Glucose Pyruvic acid Cytosol of cell Mitochondrial cristae During glycolysis, each glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid as hydrogen atoms containing high-energy electrons are removed. Via substrate-level phosphorylation 2 ATP The pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion, where Krebs cycle enzymes remove more hydrogen atoms and decompose it to CO 2. During glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, small amounts of ATP are formed. Energy-rich electrons picked up by coenzymes are transferred to the electron transport chain, built into the cristae membrane. The electron transport chain carries out oxidative phosphorylation, which accounts for most of the ATP generated by cellular respiration, and finally unites the removed hydrogen with oxygen to form water. Krebs cycle Glycolysis

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.21 Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. NADHNAD + + H+H+ 2e ee O2O2 Energy released as heat and light Energy released and now available for making ATP Protein carriers of the electron transport chain Electron flow (b)(a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.21a Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. NADH NAD + + H+H+ 2e ee O2O2 Energy released and now available for making ATP Protein carriers of the electron transport chain Electron flow (a)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.21b Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. Energy released as heat and light (b)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.22 Metabolism by body cells. (a)Carbohydrates: polysaccharides, disaccharides; composed of simple sugars (monosaccharides) Cellular uses To capillary Polysaccharides GI digestion to simple sugars Monosaccharides ATP Glycogen and fat broken down for ATP formation Excess stored as glycogen or fat Broken down to glucose and released to blood ATP Fats are the primary fuels in many cells Fats build myelin sheaths and cell membranes Cellular uses Insulation and fat cushions to protect body organs Metabolized by liver to acetic acid, etc. GI digestion to fatty acids and glycerol Lipid (fat) Fatty acids Glycerol (b)Fats: composed of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids; triglycerides (c)Proteins: polymers of amino acids Protein GI digestion to amino acids Normally infrequent Amino acids Cellular uses ATP ATP formation if inadequate glucose and fats or if essential amino acids are lacking Functional proteins (enzymes, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.) Structural proteins (connective tissue fibers, muscle proteins, etc.) Carbon dioxide Water ATP Cellular metabolic furnace: Krebs cycle and electron transport chain Monosaccharides Fatty acids Amino acids (amine first removed and combined with CO 2 by the liver to form urea) (d)ATP formation (fueling the metabolic furnace): all categories of food can be oxidized to provide energy molecules (ATP)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.22a Metabolism by body cells. (a)Carbohydrates: polysaccharides, disaccharides; composed of simple sugars (monosaccharides) Cellular uses To capillary Polysaccharides GI digestion to simple sugars Monosaccharides ATP Glycogen and fat broken down for ATP formation Excess stored as glycogen or fat Broken down to glucose and released to blood

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.22b Metabolism by body cells. ATP Fats are the primary fuels in many cells Fats build myelin sheaths and cell membranes Cellular uses Insulation and fat cushions to protect body organs Metabolized by liver to acetic acid, etc. GI digestion to fatty acids and glycerol Lipid (fat) Fatty acids Glycerol (b)Fats: composed of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids; triglycerides

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.22c Metabolism by body cells. (c) Proteins: polymers of amino acids Protein GI digestion to amino acids Normally infrequent Amino acids Cellular uses ATP ATP formation if inadequate glucose and fats or if essential amino acids are lacking Functional proteins (enzymes, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.) Structural proteins (connective tissue fibers, muscle proteins, etc.)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.22d Metabolism by body cells. Carbon dioxide Water ATP Cellular metabolic furnace: Krebs cycle and electron transport chain Monosaccharides Fatty acids Amino acids (amine first removed and combined with CO 2 by the liver to form urea) (d)ATP formation (fueling the metabolic furnace): all categories of food can be oxidized to provide energy molecules (ATP)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.23 Metabolic events occurring in the liver as blood glucose levels rise and fall. HOMEOSTATIC BLOOD SUGAR IMBALANCE Glycogenesis: Glucose converted to glycogen and stored Gluconeogenesis: Amino acids and fats converted to glucose Glycogenolysis: Stored glycogen converted to glucose Stimulus: Falling blood glucose level Stimulus: Rising blood glucose level

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 14.3 Factors Determining the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation. HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6C37.8C) IMBALANCE Skin blood vessels dilate: Capillaries become flushed with warm blood; heat radiates from skin surface Body temperature decreases: Blood temperature declines and hypothalamus heat-loss center shuts off Sweat glands activated: Secrete perspiration, which is vaporized by body heat, helping to cool the body Activates heat-loss center in hypothalamus Blood warmer than hypothalamic set point Stimulus: Increased body temperature (e.g., when exercising or the climate is hot) Skin blood vessels constrict: Blood is diverted from skin capillaries and withdrawn to deeper tissues; minimizes overall heat loss from skin surface Body temperature increases: Blood temperature rises and hypothalamus heat-promoting center shuts off Skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated; shivering begins Blood cooler than hypothalamic set point Activates heat- promoting center in hypothalamus Stimulus: Decreased body temperature (e.g., due to cold environmental temperatures)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation. (1 of 2) HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6C37.8C) IMBALANCE Skin blood vessels dilate: Capillaries become flushed with warm blood; heat radiates from skin surface Body temperature decreases: Blood temperature declines and hypothalamus heat-loss center shuts off Sweat glands activated: Secrete perspiration, which is vaporized by body heat, helping to cool the body Activates heat-loss center in hypothalamus Blood warmer than hypothalamic set point Stimulus: Increased body temperature (e.g., when exercising or the climate is hot)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation. (2 of 2) HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6C37.8C) IMBALANCE Skin blood vessels constrict: Blood is diverted from skin capillaries and withdrawn to deeper tissues; minimizes overall heat loss from skin surface Body temperature increases: Blood temperature rises and hypothalamus heat-promoting center shuts off Skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated; shivering begins Blood cooler than hypothalamic set point Activates heat- promoting center in hypothalamus Stimulus: Decreased body temperature (e.g., due to cold environmental temperatures)

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. A Closer Look 14.2 Obesity.

2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Systems in Sync 14.1 Homestatic Relationships between the Digestive System and Other Body Systems. Digestive System Liver removes hormones from blood, ending their activity; digestive system provides nutrients needed for energy fuel, growth, and repair; pancreas has hormone-producing cells Local hormones help regulate digestive function Digestive system provides nutrients for normal functioning; HCI of stomach provides nonspecific protection against bacteria Lacteals drain fatty lymph from digestive tract organs and convey it to blood; Peyers patches and lymphoid tissue in mesentery house macrophages and immune cells that protect digestive tract organs against infection Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair Kidneys transform vitamin D to its active form, which is needed for calcium absorption; excrete some bilirubin produced by the liver Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; liver removes lactic acid, resulting from muscle activity, from the blood Skeletal muscles activity increases contractions of GI tract Digestive system produces nutrients for normal neural functioning Neural controls of digestive function; in general, para- sympathetic fibers accelerate and sympathetic fibers inhibit digestive activity; reflex and voluntary controls of defecation Digestive system provides nutrients for energy metabolism, growth, and repair Respiratory system provides oxygen and carries away carbon dioxide produced by digestive system organs Digestive system provides nutrients to heart and blood vessels; absorbs iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis; absorbs water necessary for normal blood volume Cardiovascular system transports nutrients absorbed by alimentary canal to all tissues of the body; distributes hormones of the digestive tract Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair and extra nutrition needed to support fetal growth Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; supplies fats that provide insulation in the dermal and subcutaneous tissues The skin synthesizes vitamin D needed for calcium absorption from the intestine; protects by enclosure Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; absorbs calcium needed for bone salts Skeletal system protects some digestive organs by bone; cavities store some nutrients (e.g., calcium, fats) Endocrine System Lymphatic System/Immunity Urinary System Muscular System Nervous System Respiratory System Cardiovascular System Reproductive System Integumentary System Skeletal System

© 2015 pearson education, inc. figure 14.11 schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities....

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