daily quizzes understand the material read the text study frequently for short periods find a...
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Daily quizzes Understand the material Read the text Study frequently for short periods Find a study buddy
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Classroom Etiquette and rules:Turn off cell phones !
No chewing gums Be considerate of others:
Take out what you bring in. Be ontime, No late more than 5-
10m Talk to me, NOT your
neighbor!No absence from exams without prior excuse
Do not ask for grades over the phone or internet.
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Use Professional ethics NO:
PlagiarismCheatingAllowing others to copy from you
Penalties can be severe !!
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Pathology – focus on physical changes in diseased organs and tissues
Pathophysiology – abnormal functioning of diseased organs and how it applies to medical treatment and patient care
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Disease – loss of homeostasis, or when physical or mental capacities cannot be fully utilized (interuption, cessation or disorder in the function of an organ or system).
Etiology = cause of the diseaseWhen the etiology is unknown, the disease is
said to be idiopathic.
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Genetic disease– genes are responsible for a structural or functional defect
Congenital disease– genetic information is intact, but the intrauterine environment interferes with normal development
Acquired disease – disease is caused by factors encountered after birth (biological agents, physical forces, and chemical agents)
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Clinical manifestations – indications that the person is sickSymptoms – unobservable effects of a disease reported by the patientSigns – observable or measurable traits
Syndrome - a characteristic combination of signs and symptoms associated with a particular disease.
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Diagnosis – identification of the specific diseaseTherapy – the treatment of the disease to either effect a cure or reduce the patient’s signs and symptomsPrognosis – prediction of a disease’s outcome
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The cell is the building block of each living organism. Each cell is a self-contained system that undergoes the functions of energy production and usage, respiration, reproduction, and excretion
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Reproduction Growth Differentiation Respiration Secretion Excretion
Organization Metabolism
◦ Catabolism◦ Anabolism
Responsiveness◦ Conductivity
Movement
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All cells composed internally of cytoplasm and nucleus, and surrounded externally by cell membrane.
The cytoplasm includes everything inside the cell but outside the nucleus
mitochondria ;energy endoplasmic reticulum
and ribosomes; protein synthesys
Golgi apparatus; secretion of proteins synthesized on the ribosomes.
lysosomes ; digestive enzymes.
Cytoskeleton.
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Amino Acids -> Proteins◦ Structure & Function
Nucleic Acids -> DNA / RNA◦ Information Transmission, energy storage
Simple Sugars -> Polysaccharides◦ Energy Sources, structure
Fatty Acids -> Lipids◦ Structure, Energy Source
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Composed of lipid molecules in bilayerPhospholipids have hydrophobic tailPhospholipids have hydrophilic headsAlso contains embedded proteins
proteins are important for cell-cellcommunication:
receptors for hormonescell recognition
also important for metabolic processes inside the cell:
channelspumpsenzymes
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Phospholipid bilayer
Membrane proteins
Cytoplasm Nucleus Ribosomes
Mitochondria Endoplasmic
Riticulum Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes
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Generic CellGeneric Cell
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Cytosol – aqueous gel-like mediumImportant metabolic processes occur here
Organelles – membrane bound structuresMembranes provide compartments forseparation of chemical reactions
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large, membrane-bound organelle that contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
the DNA is folded up inside the nucleus
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Human Genome as a Book Human Genome as a Book
There are 23 chapters, called CHROMOSOMES Each chapter contains several thousand
stories, called GENES Each story is made up of paragraphs, called
EXONS Each story is interrupted by advertisements
called INTRONS Each paragraph is made up of words, called
CODONS. Each word is written in letters called BASES
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Movement Through the Membrane Lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen,
carbon dioxide, alcohol, and urea, move across the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion
Other substances that;not lipid soluble, i.e most small ions, glucose, amino acids, and proteins, move between the extracellular and the intracellular compartments through pores provided by the integral proteins or through carrier-mediated transport systems.
Simple diffusion: osmosis,
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Atrophy = shrinkage = decrease in cell size. Due to :
decreased use decreased blood supplydecreased nutrition
Of tissues or organs may be due to cell shrinkage or due to cell death.
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Cellular AdaptationMechanisms of Cell InjuryManifestations of Cell InjuryCellular Death
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AtrophyHypertrophyHyperplasiaDysplasiaMetaplasia
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Sizeof organelles
Sizeof organelles
Workload(or disease state)
Workload(or disease state) Size
of organelles
Sizeof organelles
Energy Usage Energy Usage Efficiency
-OR-
Efficiency-OR-
Functionalityin disease state
Functionalityin disease state
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Size # of organelles
Size # of organelles
Size # of organelles
Size # of organelles
Workload(or disease state)
Workload(or disease state)
contractility contractility
ability to meet demands!
-OR-
ability to meet demands!
-OR-
Functionalityin disease state
Functionalityin disease state
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rate of cell division
rate of cell division
WorkloadPhysiological state
WorkloadPhysiological state
functionality functionality
ability to meet demands!
...
ability to meet demands!
...
2 types:Compensatory &
Hormonal
2 types:Compensatory &
Hormonal
tissue sizeby # of cells
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PathologicalPathologicalPathologicalPathological
Normal CellsNormal Cells
Epithelial Tissue
AbnormalAbnormalShape & SizeShape & Size
Mutation
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Normal Tissue
AbnormalTissue
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PathologicalPathologicalPathologicalPathological
Normal CellsNormal Cells
Ex: CigaretteSmoking
AbnormalAbnormalCellsCells
Replacement
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HypoxicChemicalStructural
◦(trauma…tons next semester)!InfectiousImmunologic / Inflammatory
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Atmospheric Oxygen Atmospheric Oxygen
Loss of HbLoss of Hb
Hb function (CO) Hb function (CO)
erythropoiesis erythropoiesis
Respiratory Function Respiratory Function
Cardiovascular Function Cardiovascular Function
Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury!
Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury!
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Loss of Phospholipids
Loss of Phospholipids
MembraneDamage
MembraneDamage
Release ofEnzymes
Release ofEnzymes
ElevatedElevated““Markers”Markers”
ex CK, CKMBex CK, CKMB
ElevatedElevated““Markers”Markers”
ex CK, CKMBex CK, CKMB
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Hypertrophy = increase in cell sizeWe'll see this in heart, kidney (and others) w/ pathologyNOT due to increased cell volume or fluidRather, due to increased protein synthesis within the cell, or decreased protein breakdownResult is increased protein in organelles
Hyperplasia = increase in cell numberDue to increased cell division
Uterus and breast tissueParathyroid gland in kidney failureLiver (compensatory hyperplasia)
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Metaplasia = replacement of one cell type with anotherReversible
An example: ciliated columnar epithelium replaced by
stratified squamous epithelium
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Dysplasia = change in cell resulting in abnormal cell size, shape or organizationWe'll see this in respiratory tract, cervix w/ pathologyIn mature cells only
Immature cells would be expected to change in size, shape as they grow and mature
Considered a reversible change
Neoplasia = associated with a malignant tumor
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Buildup of substances the cell can’t use or dispose of.
◦Normal body substances◦Abnormal products from inside the body (inborn
errors of metabolism)◦Substances from outside the body (transient or
permanent)
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Causes of cell injury:Deficiency – lack of a substance necessary
to the cellIntoxication or poisoning – presence of a
toxin or substance that interferes with cell functioning
Trauma – physical injury and loss of cell’s structural integrity
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Deficiencies:
Deficiency in oxygen most important
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Hypoxia = deficiency in oxygen at cellDue to :
Decreased oxygen in airDecreased hemoglobin or decreased oxygen transported to cellsDiseases of the respiratory and/or
cardiovascular system
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Important to cell because of oxidative phosphorylation, which results
in the production of ATP
Oxidative: need oxygen to produce ATP
ATP: needed by cell for metabolism, cell life
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Cellular response to hypoxiaDecreased mitochondrial reactions
decreased ATP produced decreased energy
Ion pumps cease, so can't regulate ions into/out of cell (ATP needed for this)
Can't pump Na+ and water out of cell, so get cell swelling organelle swelling
cell death
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Ischemia is inadequate blood supply to a cell or tissue.
Ischemia can cause hypoxia.
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Intoxication (or introduction of toxins into the cell)Effect on cell depends on toxin and on cell
Some examples:Lead -- injures nervous systemCO -- deprives body of oxygenEthanol -- effects central nervous system
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Trauma -- physical disruption of cells
Ex: abrasion, cutting, burns, microorganisms etc.
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Free radicals :uncharged atom or group of atoms with an
unpaired electronFormed by radiation, redox reactions, chemicals
Atom is unstable needs to gain or lose an electroncan alter chemical bonds in proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acidscan cause chain reaction in cell
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“fallen apart”Regulated cell deathDuring developmentWorn out cellsDiseased cells (tumor suppressor p53 gene,
natural killer or Tc cells)
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Messy cell deathInitiates inflammationGangrene – large mass of tissue undergoes
necrosis
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Infections agentsMicroorganisms can invade and harm cells
Cell injury can have effects on the entire bodyExamples: fever, pain, increased heart rate
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Programmed change theoriesError theoriesTelomerase