”. redesigning the “social contract”: toward political empowerment of women in the arab...
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he countries of the Arab Gulf, including Yemen, offer no real opportunities to their citizens for political partici-pation. Instead, they enforce a sort of ‘social contract’: let
the monarchs have as much power as they want, and in return, they will provide for the peoples’ needs. Unfortunately, women are com-pletely left out of this equation. The coalition of forces responsible for this unspoken contract are conservative tribal elders, religious figures who espouse non-egalitarian interpretations of Islam, and ruling
monarchs. Representatives from civil so-ciety, marginalized sectors, and the inter-national community should work together to develop a new ‘civil and social con-tract,’ one that promotes democracy, good governance, and respect for the rights of women and minorities.
—Rahma Hugaira, July 9, 2007
“T
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Redesigning the “Social Contract”: Toward Political Empowerment of Women
in the Arab Peninsula
Rahma HugairaReagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow
National Endowment for DemocracyJuly 9, 2007
Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.
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Overview
Introduction
Social and political background of Arabian peninsula
Historical development of women’s political participation
The “Social Contract” in the Arabian peninsula
Obstacles to women’s political participation
Recommendations
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Introduction
Arabian peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the UAE and Yemen
All except Yemen joined to Gulf Corporate Council (GCC) on May 25, 1981
Population of Arab Gulf States: 33.5 million Population of Yemen: 21 million
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Distinguishing Characteristics Geography: (isolation) surrounded by three seas Religion: the birthplace of Islam Economy: wealthy oil-dependent states, except Yemen Tribal culture: tribal loyalty is dominant Political System: monarchies, except Yemen Paternal Social System: services without taxation
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Regimes In Power
States: Provide free public services for citizens Ban political parties Citizens can’t change their governments Judiciary is not independent
Monarchs: Have unlimited political power Can dissolve the elected parliaments Hold legislative and executive powers Limited wave of political reforms
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Political Progress Has Been Recent
Country Date of Establishment or
Independence
First Constitution
First Election
Women’s Suffrage
Saudi Arabia Sept. 23, 1932 1992 2005 –
Qatar Sept. 3, 1971 1972 1999 1999
Kuwait June 19, 1961 1962-1963 1963 2005
Bahrain December 16, 1971 1973 2001 2002
UAE December 2, 1971 1971 2006 2006
Oman 1932 1996(The “Basic Law” was
promulgated)
2003 2003
Yemen 1962 (became a republic)
1993 in unified Yemen
1967
Source: Table composed of data from United Nation Development Programme
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Political Participation of Women
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Women Voters are IncreasingPercentage of Women Voters
18%
0%
22%
51%
38%
0%
42% 42% 42%
52%
45%
57%
13%12%
46%51% 52%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Yemen
:Par
liam
ent
Yemen
: Pre
sident
ial
Yemen
: Munic
ipal
Saudi
Arabia
: Mun
icipal
UAE: Cons
ultativ
e
Bahra
in: P
arlia
men
tary
Bahra
in: M
unici
pal
Oman
: Parlia
men
tary
Qatar
: Mun
icipal
Kuwait:
Parlia
mentar
y
First Election
Most Recent Election
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Women Candidates are Decreasing Percentage of Women Candidates for Public Office
14.3%
4.5%
0.0%
8.5%
11.2%
0.5%
1.3%
0.0% 0.0%
3.0%
10.1%
2.9%
0.7% 0.0%
0.8%2.5%
2.9%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
16%
First election
Most Recent Election
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Stages of Women’s Participation in Public Life
Independent economy
Participationin
decision-making
Education •Kuwait: 31%•Bahrain: 21% •Yemen: 28% •Oman: 17%•Saudi: 16% •UAE: 15% •Qatar: 61%*
*women’s participation in governmental positions from 1991–97
Women in the Workforce in 2000:
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Women’s Political Participation Today
State Cabinet Parliament Consultative Council
Municipal Councils
Saudi Arabia 0 - 0 0
Kuwait 2 0 - 2
Bahrain 2 1 10 1
Oman 4 - 2 + 8 in state council
0
Qatar 1 - - 1
United Arab Emirates
2 - - 9
Yemen 2 1 3 33 of 6000
Source: Data drawn from the United Nations Development Programme
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Why is there a Lack of Development?
Low percentage of female representation Changes in democratic institutions are slow and
weak The spread of traditional loyalties People have become more religious
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Coalition of Forces: The Social Contract in the Gulf States Linked to each other as a coalition of forces Created tribal and religious autocrats They share common characteristics:
Promote patriarchy Fanaticism of sect and tribe Promote the same stereotyping of
women (housekeeper) Men hold all the important, influential
positions Wahabism
Implementing Wahabism’s directives by force
Representing Islam as a religion of blind worship, rather than a religion of humanitarian principles
Religion
CultureRegime
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Obstacle I:The Absence of Good Governance
The “social contract” of ruling families in the Gulf: The contract is between tribal men and ruling family Imposed as strict political order for life Represents tribal, sect, & familial interests first Encourages religious fanaticism and uses tribes to keep
societies closed Makes political loyalty a religious obligation Controls the media Absence of fair contract that protects all rights The ‘rule of law’ is suppressed by the ‘rule of the ruler’
Regime
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The “social contract” of the citizens: Fanatic loyalty to religion and tribe, more than to the
rule of law Commitment to autocrats more than to institutions The followers of other sects and weak tribes are
marginalized This paves the way for Islamic groups to build up
support Yet, there is a growing desire to implement reforms
domestically
Obstacle I: The Absence of Good Governance
Regime
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Obstacle II: Prevalence of Unfair and Non-egalitarian
Interpretations of Islam All the religious scholars and speakers are
men Examples of stereotyping of women:
“Woman have inferior minds and religiosity”
“No successful nation lets a woman rule” “Women are shameful”
Religion
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According to Saudi law women are prohibited from: Working in some fields, for example: engineering Driving a car Traveling alone, unless she has a mahram (relative)
with her or a letter from a mahram Being alone: she must stay with a man; can be her
husband Being compromised: she cannot stay with men who
are not mahrems Being indecent: she must cover her face and hair Using internet cafes
Religion
Obstacle II: Women under Wahabi Dominance
Propagating discrimination of women around the world
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Culture
Obstacle III: Tribal Culture & Male-dominance
Tribal culture promotes male interests: All tribal leaders are men Monarchies boost the role of tribes Paternal grip of men in families Almost all lawmakers are men Most decision-making meetings are held
during exclusively male sessions (i.e., dewanias in Kuwait )
School curriculums: promote the stereotyping of women
Media: promotes negative role of women
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Culture
Promotes negative attitudes toward women Legitimizes violence against women Societies, including women themselves, look down
on women Women are seen as a cause for corruption of
morals Women are easy to undermine through slander or
the spreading of rumors Women are believed to be unqualified to lead
Obstacle III: Culture Stereotyping Women
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Redesigning the “Social Contract”:
Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf
CultureUnfair
Interpretations
AutocratsWomen
Liberals
International Community
• Work on grassroots• Carry out political and social reforms • Enforce the rule of law • Link feminists with liberals and
marginalized sectors • Unite the agenda • Increase pressure on rulers
Break through this coalition:
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Recommendations in the Field of Religion:
Women Should be Muftias
Monitor speeches made in mosques concerning women’s rights
Set up dialogues for scholars on women’s role in society
Run long-term awareness programs for scholars on the role of women
Create lobbying groups of women and men to counteract extreme fatwas
Support and publicize scholars’ moderate fatwas on women’s issues
Religion
Actions for Civil Society and the International Community:
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Religion
Officially enable women to be a part of interpretation (ijtehad)
Issue official fatwas that reflect the significance of women’s participation
Develop the role of official media in promoting women’s rights
Recommendations in the Field of Religion:Minimize the Spread of Religious Educational Institutions Against
Human Rights
Actions for Arab Governments:
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Culture
Actions for Civil Society and the International Community:
Set up long-term awareness programs through mosques & media concerning the importance of women in society
Produce media materials that tell the stories of successful women
Move NGO activities from hotels and conference rooms to the field, where women live
Adopt plans to decrease violence against women
Recommendations for Culture:Move Activities from Hotels to the Field
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Culture
Include women’s rights and gender equality in educational curriculums
Reconstruct the social rules inside the family, based on new constructions of gender
Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements
Issue protective laws for women against violence, threats and harassment
Act seriously to minimize educational and cultural illiteracy among women
Recommendations for Culture:Remove Discriminatory Material from the Classroom
Actions for Governments:
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Regime
Mobilize women in political parties to exert pressure to give women equal chances to be candidates
Give women a percentage of seats in decision-making institutions (quota system)
Set up new electoral procedures that ensure equal opportunities and financing for women candidates
Enable legislation and international actions to ensure women’s rights in economic and political sectors
Recommendations for Regimes: Reserve a Percentage of Seats for Women
Political Actions for Governments:
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Political Action for Civil Society
Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements, instead of only working on awareness activities
Move NGO activities from hotels and conferences rooms to the field, where most women are located
Coordinate between interested institutions and NGOs to create a single, accumulative achievement, instead of wasting efforts
Put pressure on parties to give women equal opportunities to run for office
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Redesigning the “Social Contract”:
Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf
CultureUnfair
Interpretations
Regimes
Women
Liberals
International Community