اصطالح شناسی منابع (Resources)

در متون اقتصاد و مدیریت

علیرضا اسدی

Resource based EconomicsResource based Development

Literature :• Viner, J. (1952), “International Trade and Economic

Development”, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press. • Lewis, W. A. (1955), “The Theory of Economic Growth”,

Homewood, Ill., R. D. Irwin. • Viner, J. (1952), “International Trade and Economic

Development”, Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.• Innis, H. A. (1956), “Essays in Canadian Economic History”,

Toronto: University of Toronto Press.• North, D. C. (1955), “Location Theory and Regional Economic

Growth”, Journal of Political Economy 63, April.

RESOURCE-BASED ECONOMIC GROWTH, PAST AND PRESENTGavin Wright and Jesse CzelustaStanford University, June 2002•Recent literature argues that natural resource abundance is likely to be bad for economic growth.•This paper provides a counterargument by highlighting examples of successful resource-based development. •The first is historical: the United States from the mid-nineteenth century to the mid-twentieth.•The paper then considers whether resource-based development is still feasible in the modern global economy.

• The American economy may have been resource abundant, but Americans were not rentiers living passively off of their mineral royalties. Clearly the American economy made something of its abundant resources

• David and Wright identify the following elements in the rise of the American minerals economy: (1) an accommodating legal environment; (2) investment in the infrastructure of public knowledge; (3) education in mining, minerals, and metallurgy.

How to Sustain Growth in a Resource Based Economy? The Main Concepts and their Application to the Russian Case Rudiger Ahrend, 2006•Resource-based economies are often – although somewhat arbitrarily – defined as economies where natural resources account for more than 10 per cent of GDP and 40 per cent of exports.•While in the 1950s and 60s economists generally saw abundant natural resource endowments as facilitating a country’s rapid development, in the last two decades many economists have come to see natural resources as an obstacle to successful development.

• If suitable economic and political framework conditions can be established, natural resource abundance does not have to prevent successful economic development as e.g. the examples of Australia, Canada and the Scandinavian countries demonstrate

• We argue that resource-based development places a priority on good macroeconomic management, in sound fiscal policy in particular. Turning to the institutional side, it is stressed that, for a number of reasons, the need for a non-corrupt and efficient state apparatus is particularly strong in a resource-based economy, and that achieving such an institutional setting is facilitated by the presence of a strong civil society.

• diversifying a resource-based economy can also solve potential problems of resource dependence. This paper therefore also explores the possibilities for resource-based economies to accelerate the diversification of their economic structures.

RESOURCE-BASED GROWTH THEN AND NOWGavin Wright, Stanford University, June 2001•The practical policy issue is whether countries with resource potential should encourage investment, exploration, and research for the purpose of developing that potential to its maximum.•Statistical analysis of such episodes may tell us much about the pitfalls of resource management, but they do not justify a conclusion that resource development itself is mistaken as a national policy.

• ….‘‘The story of resource-based growth has been told before, but there is no consensus as to the conclusions.’’

• …..the question what happens to the pattern of resource-based development if there is no alternative to the main resource-exploitation activity?

• Under favorable conditions, the Malthusian resource-based economic system will lead to constant per capita income and population. there are many examples in history where finding and exploiting ‘‘a new source of supply of raw materials’’ has been fundamental to the process of economic development. In essence, that is what is meant by the term resource-based development. Thus throughout history abundant natural resources and favorable conditions in the world economy have combined often to generate successful resource-based development in many economies .However, other factors are also important.

• a key paradox concerning the role of natural resources in economic development: why is it that, despite the importance of natural capital for sustainable economic development, increasing economic dependence on natural resource exploitation appears to be a hindrance to growth and development in the majority of low and middle-income economies of the world?

• Conventional explanations suggest that the comparatively poor growth performance of low-income countries can be attributed to failed policies and weak institutions across the economy, including the lack of well-defined property rights, insecurity of contracts, corruption and general social instability (Keefer and Knack 1997; Mauro 1995; Murphy et al. 1993; Pack 1994; World Bank 1992).

• One explanation is the resource curse hypothesis, i.e. the poor potential for resource-based development in inducing the economy-wide innovation necessary to sustain growth in a small open economy, particularly under the ‘‘Dutch disease’’ effects of resource-price booms (Auty 1993, 1994, 1997 and 2001a; Gelb 1986b and 1988; Gylfason 2001a and 2001b; Gylfason et al. 1999; Matsuyama 1992; Rodrı´guez and Sachs 1999; Ross 1999; Sachs and Warner 1995b and 2001; Stevens 2003).

• Other theories have suggested an open access exploitation hypothesis, i.e. trade liberalization for a developing economy dependent on open access resource exploitation or poorly defined resource rights may actually reduce welfare in that economy (Brander and Taylor 1997 and 1998a; Chichilnisky 1994; Hotte et al. 2000; Southey 1978)

…some economists have proposed a factor endowment hypothesis. The abundant natural resources relative to labor (especially skilled labor), plus other environmental conditions, in many developing regions have led to lower economic growth, either directly because relatively resource-abundant economies remain specialized for long periods in primary-product exports (Wood and Berge 1997; Wood and Mayer 2001; Wood and Ridao- Cano 1999) or indirectly because some factor endowments generate conditions of inequality in wealth and political power that generate legal and economic institutions inimical to growth and development (Easterly and Levine 2003; Engerman 2003; Engerman and Sokoloff 1997; Sokoloff and Engerman 2000).

• Table 1.1 shows that between 1960 and 1990 the per capita incomes of the resource-poor countries grew at rates two to three times faster than those of the resource-abundant countries and that the gap in the growth rates widened significantly since the 1970s.

مفهوم منابع در متون مدیریتی )تئوری سازمانها(

resource-based view• The resource-based view is a way of viewing the firm and in

turn of approaching strategy. The resource-based view was popularized by Hamel and Prahalad in their book “Competing for the Future” (1994).

• Where the resource-based view tends to focus on the types of resources and the characteristics of these resources that make them strategically important, the dynamic capability perspective focuses on how these resources need to change over time to maintain their market relevance

key characteristics for a resource to be strategically important:• Valuable – There is no point having a resource if it does not deliver value to the firm.• Rare – Resources that are owned by a large number of firms cannot confer competitiveadvantage, as they can not deliver a unique strategy vis-à-vis competing firms.• Inimitable – Resources can only be sources of sustained competitive advantage if firmsthat do not possess these resources cannot obtain them.• Non-substitutable – There must be no strategically equivalent valuable resources that arethemselves neither rare nor inimitable

A resource-based view of organizational strategy has two key assertions: resource heterogeneity and resource immobility (Mata, Fuerst, & Barney, 1995). An organization is said to have sustained competitive advantages if it possesses unique resources (resource heterogeneity), and places competitors at a significant cost disadvantage when they attempt to obtain, develop, and use the same resources (resource immobility).

مفهوم منابع در متون اقتصادی

Economics: Principles and Applications

• Dr. Robert E. Hall is a prominent applied economist. He is the Robert and Carole McNeil Joint Professor of Economics at Stanford University • Dr. Marc Lieberman is

Clinical Professor of Economics at New York University

“Now let’s think about scarcity and choice from society’s point of view. What are the goals of our society? We want a high standard of living for our citizens, clean air, safe streets, good schools, and more. What is holding us back from accomplishing all of these goals in a way that would satisfy everyone? You already know the answer: scarcity.In society’s case, the problem is a scarcity of resources—the things we use to make goods and services that help us achieve our goals. Economists classify resources into three categories:1. Labor is the time human beings spend producing goods and services.2. Capital consists of the long-lasting tools people use to produce goods and services. This includes physical capital, such as buildings, machinery, and equipment, as well as human capital—the skills and training that workers possess.3. Land is the physical space on which production takes place, as well as the natural resources found under it or on it, such as oil, iron, coal, and lumber.”

• Typically, economists consider a tool to be capital only if it lasts for a few years or longer.

• In fact, all of the raw materials needed to produce [every things]…. —come, ultimately, from society’s three resources.

• As a society, our resources—land, labor, and capital—are insufficient to produce all the goods and services we might desire. In other words, society faces a scarcity of resources.

• The scarcity of resources—and the choices it forces us to make—is the source of all of the problems you will study in economics.

Economists call this process aggregation—combining a group of distinct things into a single whole. How broadly or narrowly we define a good or service is one of the choices that distinguishes macroeconomics from microeconomics. In macroeconomics, goods and services are aggregated to the highest levels. Macro models even lump all consumer goods—dishwashers, cell phones, blue jeans, and so forth—into the single category “consumption goods” and view them as if they are traded in a single, broadly defined market, “the market for consumption goods.” Similarly, instead of recognizing different markets for shovels, bulldozers, computers, and factory buildings, macro models analyze the market for “capital goods.” Defining goods in this very broad way allows macroeconomists to take an overall view of the economy without getting bogged down in the details.