-van leeuwen(2006)_towards a semiotics of typography
TRANSCRIPT
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39Towards a semiotics of typography
Information Design Journal + Document Design 4(2), 3955
2006 John Benjamins Publishing Company
Keywords:connotation, distinctive features, document
design, ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning, semi-otics, medium, mode, textual meaning, typography
Tis article outlines a social semiotic approach to analys-
ing the ideational, interpersonal and textual meaning
potentials of letter forms, drawing on Jakobsons distinc-
tive feature analysis and Lakoff and Johnsons theory of
experiential metaphor. X distinctive features are recog-
nized and applied to the analysis of examples: weight,expansion, slope, curvature, connectivity, orientation and
regularity.
The new writing
Over the past thirty years or so, a range of methods has
been developed for analysing the coherence of English
text. Influential studies of thematic structure (Fries,
983), lexical cohesion (Gutwinski, 976; Halliday &
Hasan, 976; Martin, 992), reference (Gleason, 973,
Halliday & Hasan, 976; Martin, 992), conjunction
(Halliday & Hasan, 976; Halliday, 985; Martin, 983,
992) and other aspects of cohesion have provided effec-
tive and widely used tools for analysing coherence and
cohesion in written text. And linguistic genre studies
(Swales, 990; Martin, 992; Van Leeuwen, 993, 2005)have made it possible to interpret the cohesive structures
of texts in terms of the communicative work they do. At
the level of the clause, functional grammar has movedbeyond the formal, structural analysis of sentences,
allowing insight into the relations between clause struc-
ture and the communicative work that clauses do, for
instance through concepts such as theme and rheme,
and given and new (e.g. Halliday, 985).
e problem is, just as we have developed these
concepts and analytical techniques, writing itself has
changed. Much of the cohesive work that used to bedone by language is now realised, not through linguistic
resources, but through layout, colour and typography.
Consider the two text fragments below, from the
UK version ofCosmopolitan magazine (September
2003, p. 49).
Theo van Leeuwen
Towards a semiotics of typography
Figure . Linguistically realised text coherence (UK Cosmo-
politan, September 2003, p.49)
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40 eo van Leeuwen
In the second sentence of Figure , the relationship
between the different animal sex personalities is indi-
cated linguistically, by the conjunction either...or, and
by the first sentence which announces that there are
five animal sex personalities, and so creates an implicit
taxonomy.
In Figure 2, on the other hand, the relationshipbetween the different characteristics of the dolphin sex
personality is indicated visually. Each of the characteris-
tics has its own visual identity, its own bullet point, and
at the same time visually resembles the other character-
istics, creating a visual classification syntagm (c.f. Kress
& Van Leeuwen, 996, pp. 7989). As a result we under-
stand that they provide the same kindof information,
that they all characterize the same type of personality.
But there is no explicit linguistic formulation of this, no
sentence announcing that the dolphin sex personality
has three main characteristics
Again, in Figure , a shi in the use of linguistic
resources signals a shi in what the text is trying to
do, a shi to a new stage in the unfolding of the texts
communicative work. As we move from declarative to
imperative sentences, we also move from a first stage of
explaining the concepts to a second stage of instruct-ing the reader in applying them. But there is no visual
boundary between these stages. Visually the text just
runs on. In Figure 2, on the other hand, the two text
elements shown, the enumeration of the main character-
istics of the dolphin, and the expansion of one of thesecharacteristics is indicated by a shi in the deployment
of visual resources, in terms of layout (bullet-pointed
text versus running text), colour (pink and black versus
black only), and typography (a shi to a different weight
of the same font).
Finally, in Figure , the link between text and image
is signified linguistically, through the sentence Study
the pictures on the following page, while in the banner
of Figure 2 the link between image and text is expressedby means of layout, through a Given-New composition
(c.f. Kress & Van Leeuwen, 996, pp.8692).
All this applies, not just to text structure, but also
to sentence structure. An advertisement for cat food
(Figure 3) shows a fluffy grey kitten lying on a so, silky
sheet. A linguistic analysis of the verbal text alone would
not make much sense. But together with the pictures, the
advertisement forms a kind of passive clause in which
Figure 2. Visually realised text coherence (UK Cosmopolitan,
September 2003, p. 49)
Figure 3. Visually realised participants with verbally realised
process
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4Towards a semiotics of typography
the process, the verb, is expressed linguistically, and the
participants visually the agent of the spoiling by the
pictures of the different kinds of cat food, and the object
of the spoiling by the picture of the cat. Note the verbal-
visual parallelism here: e word spoilt is repeated four
times, corresponding to the four tins of catfood depicted
at the bottom of the page. We could paraphrase iskitten is spoilt by catfood a, and by catfood b ... .(etc).
In the case of Figure 4, the opposite happens. e
grammar, the structure of the proposition is realised
visually. e participants are demarcated as participants
in the structure by means of framing and colour, and the
process is expressed by means of an arrow, rather than
by means of a verb such as causes, or leads to or results
in. But the lexical content of the participants is realised
verbally, through nominal groups. In other words, the
grammar is visual, and the lexis verbal.
e London typographer Jonathan Barnbrook has
used this principle in a series of television commer-
cials. In Figure 5, the elements of the clause are realised
verbally, but each is given a distinct identity, defined as a
distinct element by different kinds of frame, colour and
typography, and these elements are connected to each
other by means of lines and arrows. Again, the (clauselevel) grammar is visual, and the lexis verbal.
e problem is, concepts and methods for analys-
ing this new kind of writing, its coherence, and hence
its potential effectiveness, lag behind the techniques we
have for analysing traditional writing.
The new typography
Elsewhere Kress and I (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 996,
2002; Van Leeuwen, 2005) have attempted to outline
methods for analysing layout and colour which can be
integrated with already existing methods of analysing
linguistic text structure such as those referenced above.
Here I will try to apply the principles we used in this
work to typography. is is a relatively novel enterprise.
Most research on typography has concerned itself only
with legibility. Typography was not considered a semi-
otic mode in its own right. In the ames and Hudson
Manual of Typography, first published in 980, McLean
says that to a very limited extent, lettering may help to
express a feeling or a mood that is in harmony with the
meaning of the words, but for the most part lettering
and calligraphy are abstract arts (...) What moves us is
something formal, and, in the last resort, inexplicable(McLean, 2000, pp. 5456).
Figure 4. Visually realised process with verbally realised
participants
Figure 5. Vicks television commercial by
Jonathan Barnbrook
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42 eo van Leeuwen
All this is now changing. Typography is facing
new challenges, as screen media such as the Internet
become more and more oriented towards the written
word and page media such as books and magazinesbecome increasingly visual. A new typography has
emerged which no longer sees itself as a humble cra
in the service of the written word, but as spearheading
innovation in graphic design, and which no longer sees
typography as an abstract art, but as a means of commu-
nication in its own right. Designers Bellantoni and
Woolman (2000), for instance, write that the printed
word has two levels of meaning, the word image, i.e. the
idea represented by the word itself, constructed from astring of letters, and the typographic image, the holistic
visual impression, and designer Neuenschwander (993,
p. 3, p. 3) calls typography a fully developed medium
of expression, possessing a complex grammar by which
communication is possible, quoting the Swiss designer
Hans-Rudolf Lutz who has said that Gestaltung ist auch
Information [design is also information].
is move towards a new role for typography is notrestricted to the work of professional designers, but
affects all writers. e time of the relative uniformity of
handwriting and, especially, typewriting, is over, and
the basic tools of the typographer are now available to
every word processor user. e problem is, despite the
programmatic announcement of the new typographers,
we do not yet have that complex grammar. And despite
the fact that a number of linguists have begun to explore
this new field (e.g. Myers, 994; Goodman & Graddol,
996; Crystal, 998; Walker, 2000; Cook, 200), we do
not yet have a systematic framework for the analysis of
the communicative work done by typography today.
Typography as a semiotic mode
In Reading Images (996) Kress and I used Hallidaysmetafunctional theory (Halliday, 978) to argue that
the image constitutes a semiotic mode in its own right,
a kind of language. According to Halliday, spoken and
written texts always, and simultaneously, fulfil three
broad communicative functions or metafunctions, andspecific linguistic resources, specific lexicogrammatical
and discourse-level systems, can be matched to each
of these three metafunctions. We set out to show that
images, too, can fulfil all three of these metafunctions,
and that the grammatical resources of images, too, can
be matched to specific metafunctions.
To briefly gloss the metafunctions, the ideational
metafunction is the function of constructing representa-
tions of what is going on in the world (and in our minds).e most important linguistic systems which realize it,
are the lexicon and the grammar of transitivity, which
outlines the different kinds of processes (e.g. material and
mental processes) that make it possible to create differ-
ent representations of what must ultimately be the same
phenomena. In images, Kress and I argued, this function
is fulfilled by certain aspects of composition (e.g. Kress &
Van Leeuwen, 996, pp. 7989) and by systems of vectori-ality (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 996, pp.567).
e interpersonal metafunction is the function of
language to constitute social interactions and express
attitudes towards what is being represented. One of
the lexicogrammatical resources for the former is the
grammar of mood, which allows us to do different things
with language, such as making statements, asking ques-
tions and so on. e linguistic resources for expressing
attitudes have recently been reformulated in the theory
of appraisal systems (Martin, 2000). In images the
interpersonal metafunction is fulfilled by the systems of
the gaze, size of frame, and angle.
e textual metafunction, finally, allows us to use
language to marshal individual representations-cum-
interactions into coherent texts and communicative
events, linguistically through the systems of cohesion,
thematic structure, and given-new, and in images throughthe systems of composition, framing and salience.
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43Towards a semiotics of typography
Can typography fulfil all three of these functions? I
think yes. Typography can, and is, used ideationally, to
represent actions and qualities. e examples in Figure
6, for instance, show a scratchy font used to illustrate
the idea of headache, and bones to illustrate the idea of
death. Again, in Figure 3 a so, smooth, rounded script
font is used to express the idea of indulgence. Design-
ers are increasingly interested in such illustrative usesof typography, and in blurring the boundaries between
letter forms and images, something which, in the old
typography was oen frowned upon (e.g. McLean,
2000, p. 56)
Typography can also enact interactions and express
attitudes to what is being represented. A word can be
changed into a warning or a question through typo-
graphy and typographic signs alone, as demonstrated
in Figure 7, and typography can also be used to express
attitudes towards what is being represented. It can
interpret, or, you might say, perform texts, or parts of
texts, as modern, or traditional, capricious or serious,exciting or dull and so on. Figure 8 shows New York
designers Kathryn Marshals attempt to transform email
into a visually expressive communication vehicle.
It should be remembered here that not all typo-
graphical signs are letter or number forms (cf Sttzner,
2003). Many new non-letter signs are now emerging,
and some of them can realise interpersonal meanings,
for instance the emoticons used in email messages.
e way typography can realise textual meaning hasalready been touched on in the discussion of Figure 2.
Typography can demarcate the elements, the units, of a
text and express their degree of similarity or difference
as textual elements, and it can foreground key elements
of a text and background less important elements. Many
typographical signs that are not letter forms realise
textual meaning, the most obvious example being punc-
tuation marks and they, too, are now rapidly develop-ing new uses and new signs.
Figure 6. Illustrative uses of typography
Figure 7. e typographical realisation of speech acts
Figure 8. e interpersonal function of typography: express-
ing attitudes and feelings
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44 eo van Leeuwen
Typography and multimodality
It is important, however, not to isolate typography from
the other communicative modes with which it almostalways co-occurs. Just as, in the practice of contempo-
rary designers, the boundaries between the formerly
distinct specialisms of design (illustration, typography,
photography, etc) are now eroding, so in the new writ-
ing the corresponding semiotic means of expression no
longer occupy distinct territories, but are interconnected
in many different ways. Typography itself, too, is no
longer just about letter forms. It is multimodal, inte-
grated with other semiotic means of expression such ascolour, texture, three-dimensionality, and movement.
In Figure 9, for instance, the words fall in love are in
red, which both lends them salience (a textual mean-
ing), and expresses the idea of love, though by means of
colour, rather than by means of typography.
Figure 0 shows the logo of the Swiss avant-garde artmagazine Parkett, which uses three-dimensionality
and texture, and was in fact hand-embroidered by the
designers mother. In this way it celebrates the values of
traditional hand-craed objects, and opposes itself to the
slick, computer-generated logos which are so ubiquitous
today.
Finally, in film and television titles and commercials,
and on Internet websites, typography makes increas-ing use of movement. A series of Channel 5 programme
announcements in the UK, for instance, used kinetic
typography both illustratively (e.g. writing the verb
cycle in a circle and making it rotate, or stretching out
the word long in the phrase a longwait) and interper-
sonally, by creating visual equivalents of intonation and
speech rhythm.
is means that the key concepts we need to analyse
and evaluate document design should not apply just to
language, or to any other specific, single semiotic mode.
ey should be functional concepts, concepts that label
a particular communicative function, and can be applied
to all semiotic modes that have developed resources for
realising it. Salience, making a given text element stand
out from its immediate textual environment, is such
a concept. It can be realised through a wide range of
semiotic modes, and, within each mode, by a numberof different means. Typography for instance, can realiseFigure 9. Typography and colour
Figure 0. Typography and texture
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45Towards a semiotics of typography
salience through size, colour contrasts, movement, or
indeed anything that can make a word or phrase or
clause stand out from others (different font, different
set, different weight, etc). Framing, the demarcation of
the elements of text, be they verbal or visual, is another.
And the means by which these communicative functions
are realised can also cross over between modes, and be
applied in many domains of semiotic endeavour. Creat-
ing salience through colour, for instance, is not restricted
to typography, but is possible also in images, fashion,
product design, interior decoration, architecture, etc.
And colour, in turn is not restricted to expressing
salience, but can also express ideational and interper-sonal meanings (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2002)
In other words, if we are to do justice to the common
semiotic functions of different semiotic resources, and
if we are to be able to bring out the specific strengths of
specific semiotic resources and to explain what differ-
ence it makes whether a given communicative function
is realised through one semiotic mode or combination of
semiotic modes, or another, we need to extend the scopeof linguistics, and to incorporate it in a broader theory
of multimodality. But this cannot be done without first
separately exploring the communicative potential of the
different semiotic resources involved, and it is this I am
trying to do here with respect to typography.
Typography as medium and as mode
Semiotic resources can be organized as a medium or as
a mode (c.f. Kress & Van Leeuwen, 200). If a semiotic
resource is organised as a mode, it has both a gram-
mar and a lexis. If it is organised as a medium, it has
only a lexis. Perhaps this is best explained by means
of an example. As Kress and I have described else-
where (2002), in Medieval art the semiotic resource
of colour was organised as a medium. Pigments hadvalue in themselves. Ultramarine, for instance, had to
be imported from across the sea (as the name indicates)
and was expensive, not only for this reason, but also
because it was made from lapis lazuli. erefore it was
used for high value subjects, such as the mantle of the
Virgin Mary. Such pigments were not mixed, but used in
unmixed form, or at most only mixed with white. Each
pigment was a very concrete, material resource, with its
own, unique identity and character. Around 600, in the
Netherlands, a new type of oil paint was introduced. It
was not only cheaper, it also made mixing possible. As
a result colours lost their individual identities. Colour
was no longer conceived of as lexis, as a large collec-
tion of distinctly different, individual pigments, but asa combinatory system with five elementary, abstract
colours (red in general, rather than a specific red, and
so on) from which all other colours could be mixed, just
as language is conceived of as a system with a limited
number of speech sounds from which all words can be
constructed, and a finite number of words from which
all sentences can be constructed.
Typography has mostly been seen as a medium, acollection of distinct, individual typefaces, with distinct
provenances, to be listed alphabetically, as in the word
processor, or at best grouped together on the basis of
historical principles and influences, rather than system-
atically, as in this example, from the ames and Hudson
Manualof Typography(McLean, 2000, p.60).
Didone types, invented by Didot and perfected by
Bodoni, are classified in England by the meaninglessterm modern. ey are characterized by vertical shad-
ing and hairline serifs, introduced in the middle of the
eighteenth century when improvements in presses and
paper-making made such fine lines possible to print.
e 920s Bauhaus designer Jan Tschichold attempted
to change this. He analysed letter forms into their basic
building blocks, in order to create what he called a Skel-
ettschri(skeleton lettering), a rational and functionaltypeface, suitable for the modern, industrial age. Just
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as phonologists describe language as having a limited
number of discrete phonemes and regard the many
variations of pronunciation that result from the co-artic-
ulation of different phonemes as variations that do not
affect meaning, so, here too, the meaningless variation
that resulted from typographys roots in handwriting was
eliminated, and as many interchangeable components
as possible were created (e.g. the bowls of a, b, p, d,
g and q were all made identical, which usually they are
not). But this move towards typography as system was,
and oen still is, rejected by traditional typographers.
McLean, for instance, compares it unfavourably with
the work of the famous British typographer Eric Gill(McLean, 2000, p. 67). It reduces difference, he says,
and eliminates subtlety, refinement and the link with
tradition.
[Tschicholds] seductive theory had to be paid for in loss
of legibility, since the effect was to reduce the differenc-
es... Eric Gills sans was different in that it was drawn by
an artist and designer who was already deeply involved
with the classical roman alphabet. His letters containedsubtleties and refinements which the German design-
ers, preferring the logic (or dictatorship) of rules and
compasses, could not admit.
When a semiotic resource is organized as a medium,
meaning comes about in a relatively adhoc, unsystematic
way, through one of two principles, connotation or expe-
riential metaphor(c.f. Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2002).
e term connotation is used here in a specific
sense. It refers to the idea that signs may be imported
from one context (one era, one social group, one culture)
into another, in order to signify the ideas and values
associated with that other context by those who do
the importing. Many aspects of the Circuit typeface
in Figure are imported into typography from the
domain of the electric circuitry diagram. It can there-
fore be used, for instance, to connote technicality. eHerculanum typeface in Figure 2 imports aspects of
the form language of informal Ancient Roman inscrip-
tions an papyri into a contemporary typeface and can
therefore be used to connote the values we associate with
Antiquity and the Roman Empire.
e other principle that can be used to endow
meaning to the items in the typographic lexicon, is that
of experiential metaphor. e idea, inspired by the
groundbreaking work of Lakoff and Johnson (980), is
that a material signifier has a meaning potential that
derives from our physical experience of it, from what it
is we do when we articulate it, and from our ability toextend our practical, physical experience metaphorically,
Figure . Circuit typeface (Peter Grundy, 982)
Figure 2. Herculanum typeface (Adrian Frutiger, 988)
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47Towards a semiotics of typography
to turn action into knowledge (see Van Leeuwen, 2005,
Chapter 2, for a more extensive discussion). is is again
best explained by means of an example. Speakers and
singers oen adopt a so, breathy voice quality to signify
sensuality. As experienced producers and interpreters of
speech we know both that so, whispered speech can be
associated with intimacy or conspiracy, and that breathi-
ness is associated with being out of breath, for instance
as a result of excitement or exertion thus intimate
excitement and intimate exertion can become part of
the meaning potential afforded by this signifier.
A key aspect of the letter forms in figure 3 is their
irregularity. ey differ in size and thickness, andindeed in shape different as, for instance, are drawn
differently. e distribution of weight (thickness and
thinness), too, goes against the norms of typography, in
which it is usually the upright stem of the n, rather than
the descending line in the middle, which is thick. In our
own physical experience of writing, such irregularities
stem from an inability or unwillingness to apply the
rules of neat writing we are taught in school. As a result,irregularity has, amongst other things, the potential
to signify a kind of rebellion against the norms of the
school, or, by extension, other coercive institutions. In
Figure 3 this rebellion is of course neatly contained by
the controlled symmetry of the overall layout.
Distinctive feature analysis
In phonology, a breakthrough was made when Jakob-
son and Halle (956) described phonemes, not as theminimal, not further analysable units of speech, but as
bundles of features, different combinations of distinc-
tive features such as voicedness, frontality, open-
ness and so on. Although Jakobson and Halle did not
see these features as having a semiotic potential, it is
possible to argue that they do by using the principles of
connotation and experiential metaphor, and in earlier
work I have attempted to do just this for the semiotic
modes of sound (Van Leeuwen, 999, Chapter 6) andcolour (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2002). Once this is estab-
lished, it follows that not just formal features, but also
meaning potentials can be bundled, mixed, as in the
example of the sensual voice, which blends the mean-
ings of soness and breathiness to get sensuality.
Here is a first attempt at identifying the distinctive
features of typography, and outlining their semiotic
potential. I am restricting myself to the actual letterforms rather than also including other features such as
letter spacing, interlineal space, etc, which of course also
belong to the semiotic resources of typography. I would
like to stress that the list below is not a kind of diction-
ary, listing the authoritative meanings of letter forms.
What I am doing here is presenting proposals for explic-
itly semioticizing typography, for makingsomething
meaningful that was previously was not regarded as
semiotic. But I am doing so on the basis of what I argue
to be shared experience, and hence on the basis of prin-
ciples which promise at least the possibility of successful
communication. e principle of connotation of course
also makes shared meaning possible, but on a different
basis on the basis of shared cultural knowledge and
values.
Figure 3. Cover of a Monie Love single (lettering by RuthRowland, 989)
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48 eo van Leeuwen
Weight
This is the difference between bold type-
facesor versions of a typeface,
and regular
typefaces or versions of a typeface, asshown here
bythe difference between Arial black and Arial.
As with many of the features to be discussed below, this
is not a binary but a gradual contrast there is, at least in
principle, a continuum of boldness, even if technologies
like the word processor reduce it to a binary choice.
Increased weight is of course frequently used to
increase salience, but it can, at the same time, be used
metaphorically, to signify ideational and interpersonalmeanings. Bold can be made to mean daring, assertive,
or solid and substantial, for instance, and its opposite
can be made to mean timid, or insubstantial. But the
values may also be reversed. Boldness may have a more
negative meaning. It may be made to mean domineer-
ing, overbearing. Other, co-present signifying elements
will narrow down the meaning potential and the values
invoked, and make them more specific.I have glossed the typographical meaning potential
by means of adjectives, and that may suggest that their
meaning is primarily ideational. But while adjectives like
daring, assertive, solid, substantial and so on signify
qualities of what is being represented, they can also have
interpersonal significance. ey can also signify attitudes
towards what is being represented, or do something to
readers. Boldness, for instance, can typographically
hector readers and the smooth, rounded letter forms in
Figure 3 can simultaneously signify the idea of indul-
gence and symbolically pamper and soothe the reader.
Expansion
Typefaces may be condensed, narrow, or they may be
expanded, wide, as shown here by the differencebetween Arial and Arial narrow.
e metaphoric potential of this feature, which is,
again, a continuum, relates to our experience of space.
Maximally condensed typefaces make maximal use
of limited space. ey are precise, economical, pack-
ing the page with content. Wide typefaces, by contrast,
spread themselves around, using space as if it is in
unlimited supply. But the values of the contrast may be
reversed. Wide typefaces may also be seen in a posi-
tive light, as providing room to breathe, room to move,
while condensed typefaces may, by contrast, be seen as
cramped, overcrowded, restrictive of movement.
Slope
This refers to the difference betweencursive, sloping, script-like typefacesandupright typefaces, as shown here by the difference
between Lucida Bright and Lucida Calligraphy.
Again, there are degrees of slope, and slope can also
be either right-leaning or le-leaning, although the latteris less common in typefaces.
Even when we cannot place a cursive typeface in
a particular era, the contrast can be recognized as that
between handwriting and printing. e meaning poten-
tial of this contrast is therefore predominantly connota-
tive, based on the meanings and values we associate with
handwriting and printing. Depending on the context,
it might signify a contrast between the organic and
the mechanical, the personal and the impersonal, theformal and the informal, the mass-produced and the
handcraed, the new and the old, and so on.
Curvature
A letterform can stress angularityor it
can stress curvature, as shown here by the differencebetween Copperplate and Century Gothic. Black letters,
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49Towards a semiotics of typography
as shown here by the Old English Text MT font, have
pronounced angularity. Curvature may also be realized
by the difference between, on the one hand, rounded
ascenders and descenders, e.g. in fonts whichuse loops
andfonts whichapply flicks(curved hooks at the end ofascenders and/or descenders), as shown here by Script
MT Bold and Pristina, or, on the other hand, predomi-
nantly straight ascenders and descenders, as in typefaces
like Agency FB. Many typefaces mix and match the two.
Although particular types, such as Old English Text
MT, may have clear cultural connotations, this feature
also has experiential meaning potential, based both on
our experience of producing straight, angular forms,which requires controlled, brisk, decisive movement,
and round forms, which require a more gradual, fluid
control of movement, and its significance may also be
based on experiential and cultural associations with
essentially round or essentially angular objects. Round-
edness can come to signify smooth, so, natural,
organic, maternal, and so on, and angularity abrasive,
harsh, technical, masculine, and so on. Both may eitherbe positively or negatively valued. Modernity, rationality,
functionality etc have oen favoured the values of angu-
larity, as e.g. in the paintings of Mondrian, while post-
modernity has brought back round forms, for instance
in car design and architecture. Clearly the field of
possibilities is very wide. But it will be narrowed down
by other, co-present features, and by the context gener-
ally a particularly important feature of the context is
the genre in which a font occurs, and the expectations
this sets up in the reader.
Connectivity
Letter forms can be connected to eachother, as in running script, have hooked
feet that extend to various degrees to thenext letter, or almost touch it, or lack
any of thesefeaturesso that the
letter forms are quite separate and
self-contained, as shown here by Lucia Handwrit-
ing, Lucida Calligraphy, and Lucida Console.
Connection and disconnection can be external,
between letter forms, as in the examples above, or internal,
within letter forms as in the Bauhaus 93 typeface.
Connectivity is, again, associated with handwrit-
ing, and therefore shares much of its meaning potential
with slope (see above). But it also has its own meta-
phoric potential. External disconnection can suggest
atomisation, or fragmentation, and external connection
wholeness, or integration. But the values may also bereversed, with disconnection signifying the distinctive
individuality of the elements of the whole, and connec-
tion its opposite. Internally disconnected letter forms,
finally, have a sense of not being buttoned up, which
may be negatively valued, as unfinished, or sloppy, or
positively, as, say, easy-going.
Orientation
Typefaces may be either be oriented towards the hori-
zontal dimension, by being comparatively flattened,
as shown here by Bodoni MT Black, or oriented towards the
vertical dimension by being comparatively elongated, stretched in the vertical
direction, as shown here by Onyx.
e meaning potential of horizontality and vertical-
ity is ultimately based on our experience of gravity, and
of walking upright. Horizontal orientation, for instance,
could suggest heaviness, solidity, but also inertia,
self-satisfaction, while vertical orientation could suggest
lightness, upwards aspiration, but also instability.
Other related aspects of orientation are (a) the
difference between typefaces with short ascenders and
descenders that hardly extend beyond the x-line and
the base line, as for instance in Bernard MT Condensed,and typefaces with long descenders and ascenders, as
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50 eo van Leeuwen
for instance in the aptly namedHigh Tower Text,
and (b) the difference between a downwards orientation
in which the descenders are longer than the ascenders,
as exemplified here by
Viner Hand ITC, and an
upwards orientation, in which the ascenders are longer
than the descenders, as exemplified here by Poor Richard.
In the former case the letter forms seek roots, as it were.
In the latter case they aspire to some form of metaphori-
cal elevation. When the extent of the ascenders and
descenders is minimalized, the letter forms stay within
their allotted space, and neither aspire to take root nor
to some form of metaphorical ascension.
Regularity
e contrast between regular and irregular typefaces
has already been commented on in relation to Figure 3.
Many typefaces have deliberate irregularities, through
an apparently random distribution of specific features,
for instance curvature (e.g. some descenders with, otherswithout a playful flick or ligature), and through entasis,
which can also be interpreted in terms of regularity in
some cases the different parts of a letter form differ in
weight, and in others they do not. Entasis may either
be fairly regular and systematic, in traditional oblique
shading and modern vertical shading, or differ from
these two standard forms, as in this typeface called Chiller.Irregularity may also be created by not staying within
the lines,going above the x-line or below the base-line, for instance, as here in Kristen ITC, or byvaria-
tion in slope, as in Ravie(compare the tand the l, for instance).
Traditional typography has set great store on regular-
ized forms of differentiation, for the sake of the distinc-
tiveness of letter forms, and hence of legibility. But
regularity and irregularity also have their metaphoric
potential, as seen in the brief analysis of the letter formsin Figure 3.
Non-distinctive features
Some features of letter forms are, strictly speaking, not
necessary for telling them apart, although they may be
said to contribute to legibility, as in the case of serifs.
Typography has developed a wide range of flourishes,
ligatures and capricious additions, and they, too, can be
said to have a meaning potential, in many cases deriv-
able from that of the distinctive features described
above. The flourishes of Edwardian Script IT, forinstance, are both rounded and expansive, while the
curls of Curlz MT are irregular, including pearl-shaped
loop terminals,circulardots on the is and, capriciously,within the bowls of the o, the p, the g, and the q. Iam not able to do justice to this complex area within
the space of this paper, and hope to be able to explore it
more fully in further work.
Typography as a semiotic mode
Table summarizes the discussion above in the form of a
system network (e.g. Halliday, 978). e curly brackets
signify parallel systems, that is, both...and rules (for
instance, a letter form must have both a certain weight
anda certain degree of expansion and...). e square
brackets signify binary systems, either...or choices
(for instance disconnection must be either internal or
external). e double-headed arrows signifygraded
contrasts, continuums. is brings out that, overall, this
aspect of typography operates as a parallel, rather than a
linear system.
At the same time, at least some of the parallel systems
can be modelled as binary systems, usually because they
have, in thepractice of typography, been standardized to
the degree that they have become a set of discrete alter-
natives, whether for technological or other reasons. e
system of serifs (Table 2) is a good example (I use typo-graphical terminology here, rather than functional labels)
pp. 151 & 152
not included
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53Towards a semiotics of typography
e same applies to the textual meaning potential
of typography, which I have not explored in detail in
this paper, and which is closely related to the meaning
potential of layout (c.f. the theory of layout in Kress &
Van Leeuwen, 996).
Typography and document design
I would like to end by using the framework developed
in this paper in a slightly more extended analysis of
two examples from the everyday practice of document
design.e example in Figure 4 comes from the brochure of
a real estate agent. It uses two different fonts, one for the
first sentence, a statement of self presentation in which
the company headlines the nature of its operations, the
other for a list of the areas in which it operates.
e textual meanings expressed here are obvi-
ous. e statement of self presentation is bolded and
coloured, and hence more salient. It is a headline. Butother features are also relevant, and they can not all
be explained on the basis of salience salience could
also have been achieved, for instance, by bold uprights,
rather than italics. is self-presentation statement also
uses typography ideationally (the company is construct-
ing a representation of itself) and interpersonally (the
company is also addressing its potential clients in a
certain way).
In terms of the distinctive features I have discussed,
the typeface is not only coloured (a royal purple) and
bold, but also fairly wide, sloping, fairly rounded, not
entirely regular, and with just a hint of flourish. e
other features seem to be relatively neutral and do not
appear to play much of a role in the contrast between
the two typefaces. e typeface of the list, by contrast,
is not only black, but it also has less weight, is more
condensed and upright, less rounded (compare the as
and the es for instance), more regular and without even
a hint of flourish (compare the f s, for instance). edifferences are slight, but slight differences matter in
typography.
Applying my discussion of the meaning potential
of these features, the company here presents itself in
personal way (the sloping font, reminiscent of hand-
writing), as human rather than mechanical (rounded,
and slightly irregular), but also quite assertively (bold
and wide). e typeface of the list, by contrast, is lesspersonal, more formal (the upright font), and mechan-
ical (more angular and regular), and lacks the asser-
tive features of the presentation. It is, in short, factual
and informative only, oriented towards legibility rather
than expression. is contrast is also realised in the
semiotic modes of language and colour. e language
of the self-presentation has a personal element (the use
of a first person pronoun), while the language of the
box is a neutral, factual list, eliminating all the inter-personal resources of language. And the colour of the
self-presentation sets up connotations of value (the
royal purple), while the black and white of the list is
neutral in this regard. In short, typography plays a role
both in expressing what kind of company this is, and in
expressing what communicative work it is doing in this
text fragment.
e second example is from an information brochureof an insurance company, National Mutual Life.Figure 4. Real estate information brochure
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54 eo van Leeuwen
e text in this example uses a dialogic question and
answer format, mixing information (n the past it has
not always been easy to compare the effect of chargesof
the different pension providers) and self promotion (One
company really stood out... Who is this company? Answer.
National Mutual Life), and adopting a relatively informal,
personal tone. e font used for this information is aserif, with differentiated letters, wide, fairly rounded, with
more than usually long ascenders and descenders (the
other features would appear to be relatively neutral). In
terms of the discussion above, this could be interpreted as
an attempt to appear both personable, showing a human
face and assertive within the limits of the factual genre
and the legibility requirements of running text.
e treatment of the phrase for the Independent
Financial Adviser is of particular interest. e font has
clear connotations of traditional calligraphic script. It
is wide, differentiated (two different ds, for example),
sloping, rounded, connective, quite assertive in terms of
the extent of the ascenders and descenders, and it has
pronounced flourishes. us the independent financial
adviser is flattered as being personal, flexible, enterpris-
ing, but also rooted in solid traditional values, someone
with a pedigree. Nowhere are these meanings expressedlinguistically. ey are expressed solely by the typogra-
phy. In other words, text and typography do not always
double each other. Some meanings may be realized in
both modes, others only in the one or the other.
Conclusion
My conclusion will be short, because I feel that this work
has only just begun, and not yet reached a stage in which
conclusions can be drawn. is paper should therefore
be relatively open-ended, inviting others to join in the
enterprise, rather than presenting a finished product.
So let me just briefly recapitulate. I have suggested,persuasively I hope, that typography can be seen as a
semiotic mode - systematic, multimodal and able to
realize not just textual, but also ideational and interper-
sonal meaning. I have argued that developing a detailed
grammar of this semiotic mode, and detailed approach
to analysis, is important, and that this should be done
in a way that can be integrated with the theory and
methods of other semiotic modes. In the age of the new
writing it has become imperative to analyze and evalu-
ate documents multimodally, rather than on the basis of
the linguistic text alone - however important language is,
and will always remain. To integrate the study of typog-
raphy into such a multimodal analysis, it is necessary to
go beyond the formal approach that has characterized it
so far, to put it on the basis of a theory of communica-
tive functions, and to develop that complex grammar
Neuenschwander called for. I fully realise, of course, thatwhat I have done so far covers only part of the territory
and captures only the broadest outline of the grammar
of this complex and fascinating field.
Note
I would like to express my thanks to the two anonymous read-
ers who reviewed the manuscript and spotted a number ofinaccuracies and inconsistencies.
Figure 5. Heading of National Mutual Life information
brochure for independent financial advisers
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55Towards a semiotics of typography
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Teo van Leeuwen is Dean of the Faculty of Humanities and
Social Sciences, University of Technology, Sydney. Previously
he was Director of the Centre for Language and Communica-
tion Research at Cardiff University. He has published widely
in the areas of social semiotics, critical discourse analysis and
multimodality. His latest book is Introducing Social Semiot-ics (Routledge, 2005). A second edition of his Reading Images
e Grammar of Visual Design (co-authored with GuntherKress) will appear in 2006.
Contact
University of Technology, Sydney
PO Box 23Broadway NSW 2007
Australia