LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2 / SEPTEMBER 2001

Key concepts:

• Landscape species definetheir worlds. Landscapespecies use large, diverseareas and have significantimpact on the structure andfunction of natural ecosys-tems. Their habitat require-ments in time and space makethem particularly vulnerable tothe land-use and resource har-vesting practices of people.

• The needs of landscapespecies help shape conserva-tion action. The LandscapeSpecies Approach is a wildlife-based strategy to define eco-logically meaningful manage-ment areas, identify where andwhy human-resource conserva-tion conflicts occur, targetconservation investments tocurb or resolve such conflicts,monitor investment effective-ness, and adapt investment tochanging conditions over time.

• When we conserve land-scape species, we conservelandscapes rich with wildlife.By meeting the habitat needsof, and reducing threats to, asuite of landscape species weexpect to better maintain thebiodiversity and ecologicalintegrity of the wild landscapeswithin which they reside.

the landscape species approach – a tool for site-based conservation

"The conservation

of landscape species

will help maintain

the biodiversity

and integrity

of wild lands."

Who is the Bulletin for?The Bulletin is an adaptivemanagement tool for WCSLiving Landscapes Programstaff, an action-researchlearning tool for conservationpractitioners and donors, andan evolving, transparentrecord of Program progressfor other WCS staff, donors,and the broader conservationcommunity.

Our Goal: Effective ConservationToo often in the past, conservation efforts have focused on mitigatingshort-term threats to wildlife. However, this fails to ensure that thesize, structure and quality of the landscape are sufficient to meet theecological needs of wildlife species in the long-term. Spending scarcefunds to reduce threats to wildlife within a landscape without the req-uisite habitat is a wasted investment, as the population is unlikely topersist even if the direct and immediate threats are removed.

The Landscape Species Approach forces us to be explicit aboutwhat we want to conserve, and to define the minimum conditions thatmust be retained or attained to declare conservation success. Meetingthe habitat needs of, and reducing threats to, a suite of landscapespecies will conserve the full range of habitat, plants and animals with-in the wildlands in which they reside. Being explicit about the habitatneeds of, and threats to landscape species allows us to set specific tar-gets for conservation, allowing our progress can be monitored and thesuccess of investments measured.

This approach provides an explicit biological vision for target-ing conservation investments within a site. By focusing conservationefforts on a suite of wildlife species that have diverse and complemen-tary habitat requirements, we can ensure that not only the full range ofhabitats is maintained at an appropriate scale, so too are the connec-

LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2

Upcoming Bulletins:•What is a Landscape Species?•Selecting Landscape Species•Developing a Monitoring System•Managing Wildlife Use•Community-based Wildlife Conservation•NGO/Private Sector Par tnerships

Contacts:Living Landscapes Program Wildlife Conservation Society2300 Southern Blvd. Bronx, NY 10460 USA

LLP@wcs.orgwww.wcslivinglandscapes.org living

landscapes bulletin 2

Through the Eyes of WildlifeThe Wildlife Conservation Society’s Living Landscapes Program looksthrough the eyes of wildlife to define the boundaries of landscapesessential to wildlife conservation. Where we may see a continuousblock of forest, an elephant perceives a complex matrix of food, watersites and migratory paths. Only by looking through the eyes of ani-mals, by understanding their needs, can we define conservation landsthat will ensure a future for wildlife in an increasingly human-influ-enced landscape. We call this the Landscape Species Approach, a cor-nerstone of the WCS Living Landscapes program.

The Big PictureThe Landscape Species Approach is designed to identify the needs ofkey animal species, following them beyond political or ecological bor-ders, to develop better ways for people and wildlife to share the earth’sliving landscapes. Conservation focused solely within the limits ofnational parks, or community forests, or trophy-hunting conservan-cies, often does not succeed because wildlife, ecological processes, andhuman resource-uses often spill across these borders. Regardless ofhow large or small a protected area may be, the plants and animals itcontains are often threatened either directly or indirectly by humanresource uses, even when these uses occur outside reserve boundaries.Management of protected areas cannot therefore occur in isolationfrom the surrounding human-dominated landscape, but must take intoaccount where and how human activities conflict with biodiversityconservation, and where conservation adversely affects human wel-fare.

SEPTEMBER 2001

tions between these essentialhabitat patches. Lastly, bydefining the conservationlandscape to meet the needsof healthy, functioning popu-lations of wildlife, this WCSapproach sets a higher stan-dard for conservation.

© W

CS

/ D

avid

Wilk

ie

© W

CS

/ A

my

Vedd

er

wcs

The Significance of Landscape SpeciesThough some plants and animals are tolerant of or even thrive onhuman disturbance, many more are not, and even very limited use byhumans places them at risk of extermination. Animals with large homeranges and varied habitat requirements are often most prone to localextinction. They are vulnerable to habitat loss, tend to encounter andconflict with humans most often, and are generally found at low densi-ties. Moreover, these species often play important ecological roles, andtheir disappearance risks fundamental and far reaching changes inecosystem structure and function. As a result, these ‘landscape species’are likely to serve as effective conservation umbrellas.

We argue that by meeting the diverse and extensive habitatneeds of landscape species, and by minimizing direct or indirect threatsto their survival, we will ensure their long term persistence. By sodoing, we will address factors that threaten many other plants and ani-mals that occupy the same habitats, rely on the same ecological process-es, and are affected by the same human activities.

A Landscape Species Approach allows us to define the conser-vation landscape based on the ecological needs of wildlife and the geo-graphic location and severity of human-wildlife conflicts. In this way,priorities for conservation are set by the resource requirements of land-scape species, rather than the location of political, protected area, orother land-use boundaries.

A System for SuccessDefining the conservation landscape required to meet the diverse habi-tat needs of a suite of landscape species that in combination, dependon the full range of major habitat types within a wild area, providesthe basis for a strong, focused, scientifically-based approach to biolog-ical conservation at the site-level. Moreover, by evaluating the needsof a complementary set of landscape species, we can explicitly assessthreats to their long-term persistence and set priorities for conservationactions to avoid or mitigate key conflicts with people.

To minimize clashes between people and animals, we mustidentify where and why human and wildlife needs intersect in time andspace. This requires that we gather information in the area, under-stand where and how people use the land and natural resources, andcharacterize the habitat use requirements of landscape species. To takeaction to minimize key conflicts between wildlife and people we mustwork closely with resource users, civil society organizations, privatesector companies, and public sector agencies to develop the con-stituency and capacity for wildlife conservation.

LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2 LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2

Program Steps 1. Select the wildland site, based on the results of global and regional

conservation priority setting efforts (e.g., species ranges, eco-regions, hotspots, and/or critical sites)

2. Select a suite of Landscape Species for the site which, as individualsand/or populations:a. Require a large area to meet ecological needsb. Rely on a heterogeneous array of habitatsc. Are threatened by human resource-use practicesd. Play important roles in ecosystem structure and functione. Are culturally and/or economically significant, andf. In combination with other selected species, constitute a

complementary conservation umbrella3. Define the biological landscape:

a. Map the spatial patterning of resource-use by each land-scape species population over time

b. Describe a landscape that contains sufficient resources for the persistence of a healthy, functioning population of eachlandscape species

4. Define the human landscape:a. Map the pattern and intensity of human land and resource

use practices that occur within, or affect, the area defined by the biological landscape

5. Examine the intersection of the human and biological landscapes, and identify the key conflicts that adversely affect landscape species and other wildlife they represent

6. Focus conservation actions on avoiding or mitigating key conflicts7. Monitor the effectiveness of our conservation actions and changes

in threats to wildlife and wildlands conservation

What do we need to implementthe approach?• An understanding of the biologicalrequirements and ecological roles of thelandscape species

•Maps that characterize the distributionand abundance of landscape specieshabitats and resources within andbeyond the wildland site

• Maps that characterize the spatial pat-tern and, where possible, intensity ofhuman land use practices that affectwildland species

• An understanding of the causes andconsequences of human-wildlife conflicts

• Personnel and financial resources suffi-cient to implement activities to curb orhalt human-wildlife conflicts

• Cost-effective tools to monitor progresstoward halting human-wildlife conflictsand achieving conservation objectives

© W

CS

/ M

icha

el M

aple

s

Conceptual diagram of the Landscape Species Approach

© W

CS

/ J

osh

Dre

w

© W

CS

/ P

ete

Cop

polil

lo

© W

CS

/ P

ete

Cop

polil

lo

The Significance of Landscape SpeciesThough some plants and animals are tolerant of or even thrive onhuman disturbance, many more are not, and even very limited use byhumans places them at risk of extermination. Animals with large homeranges and varied habitat requirements are often most prone to localextinction. They are vulnerable to habitat loss, tend to encounter andconflict with humans most often, and are generally found at low densi-ties. Moreover, these species often play important ecological roles, andtheir disappearance risks fundamental and far reaching changes inecosystem structure and function. As a result, these ‘landscape species’are likely to serve as effective conservation umbrellas.

We argue that by meeting the diverse and extensive habitatneeds of landscape species, and by minimizing direct or indirect threatsto their survival, we will ensure their long term persistence. By sodoing, we will address factors that threaten many other plants and ani-mals that occupy the same habitats, rely on the same ecological process-es, and are affected by the same human activities.

A Landscape Species Approach allows us to define the conser-vation landscape based on the ecological needs of wildlife and the geo-graphic location and severity of human-wildlife conflicts. In this way,priorities for conservation are set by the resource requirements of land-scape species, rather than the location of political, protected area, orother land-use boundaries.

A System for SuccessDefining the conservation landscape required to meet the diverse habi-tat needs of a suite of landscape species that in combination, dependon the full range of major habitat types within a wild area, providesthe basis for a strong, focused, scientifically-based approach to biolog-ical conservation at the site-level. Moreover, by evaluating the needsof a complementary set of landscape species, we can explicitly assessthreats to their long-term persistence and set priorities for conservationactions to avoid or mitigate key conflicts with people.

To minimize clashes between people and animals, we mustidentify where and why human and wildlife needs intersect in time andspace. This requires that we gather information in the area, under-stand where and how people use the land and natural resources, andcharacterize the habitat use requirements of landscape species. To takeaction to minimize key conflicts between wildlife and people we mustwork closely with resource users, civil society organizations, privatesector companies, and public sector agencies to develop the con-stituency and capacity for wildlife conservation.

LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2 LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2

Program Steps 1. Select the wildland site, based on the results of global and regional

conservation priority setting efforts (e.g., species ranges, eco-regions, hotspots, and/or critical sites)

2. Select a suite of Landscape Species for the site which, as individualsand/or populations:a. Require a large area to meet ecological needsb. Rely on a heterogeneous array of habitatsc. Are threatened by human resource-use practicesd. Play important roles in ecosystem structure and functione. Are culturally and/or economically significant, andf. In combination with other selected species, constitute a

complementary conservation umbrella3. Define the biological landscape:

a. Map the spatial patterning of resource-use by each land-scape species population over time

b. Describe a landscape that contains sufficient resources for the persistence of a healthy, functioning population of eachlandscape species

4. Define the human landscape:a. Map the pattern and intensity of human land and resource

use practices that occur within, or affect, the area defined by the biological landscape

5. Examine the intersection of the human and biological landscapes, and identify the key conflicts that adversely affect landscape species and other wildlife they represent

6. Focus conservation actions on avoiding or mitigating key conflicts7. Monitor the effectiveness of our conservation actions and changes

in threats to wildlife and wildlands conservation

What do we need to implementthe approach?• An understanding of the biologicalrequirements and ecological roles of thelandscape species

•Maps that characterize the distributionand abundance of landscape specieshabitats and resources within andbeyond the wildland site

• Maps that characterize the spatial pat-tern and, where possible, intensity ofhuman land use practices that affectwildland species

• An understanding of the causes andconsequences of human-wildlife conflicts

• Personnel and financial resources suffi-cient to implement activities to curb orhalt human-wildlife conflicts

• Cost-effective tools to monitor progresstoward halting human-wildlife conflictsand achieving conservation objectives

© W

CS

/ M

icha

el M

aple

s

Conceptual diagram of the Landscape Species Approach

© W

CS

/ J

osh

Dre

w

© W

CS

/ P

ete

Cop

polil

lo

© W

CS

/ P

ete

Cop

polil

lo

LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2 / SEPTEMBER 2001

Key concepts:

• Landscape species definetheir worlds. Landscapespecies use large, diverseareas and have significantimpact on the structure andfunction of natural ecosys-tems. Their habitat require-ments in time and space makethem particularly vulnerable tothe land-use and resource har-vesting practices of people.

• The needs of landscapespecies help shape conserva-tion action. The LandscapeSpecies Approach is a wildlife-based strategy to define eco-logically meaningful manage-ment areas, identify where andwhy human-resource conserva-tion conflicts occur, targetconservation investments tocurb or resolve such conflicts,monitor investment effective-ness, and adapt investment tochanging conditions over time.

• When we conserve land-scape species, we conservelandscapes rich with wildlife.By meeting the habitat needsof, and reducing threats to, asuite of landscape species weexpect to better maintain thebiodiversity and ecologicalintegrity of the wild landscapeswithin which they reside.

the landscape species approach – a tool for site-based conservation

"The conservation

of landscape species

will help maintain

the biodiversity

and integrity

of wild lands."

Who is the Bulletin for?The Bulletin is an adaptivemanagement tool for WCSLiving Landscapes Programstaff, an action-researchlearning tool for conservationpractitioners and donors, andan evolving, transparentrecord of Program progressfor other WCS staff, donors,and the broader conservationcommunity.

Our Goal: Effective ConservationToo often in the past, conservation efforts have focused on mitigatingshort-term threats to wildlife. However, this fails to ensure that thesize, structure and quality of the landscape are sufficient to meet theecological needs of wildlife species in the long-term. Spending scarcefunds to reduce threats to wildlife within a landscape without the req-uisite habitat is a wasted investment, as the population is unlikely topersist even if the direct and immediate threats are removed.

The Landscape Species Approach forces us to be explicit aboutwhat we want to conserve, and to define the minimum conditions thatmust be retained or attained to declare conservation success. Meetingthe habitat needs of, and reducing threats to, a suite of landscapespecies will conserve the full range of habitat, plants and animals with-in the wildlands in which they reside. Being explicit about the habitatneeds of, and threats to landscape species allows us to set specific tar-gets for conservation, allowing our progress can be monitored and thesuccess of investments measured.

This approach provides an explicit biological vision for target-ing conservation investments within a site. By focusing conservationefforts on a suite of wildlife species that have diverse and complemen-tary habitat requirements, we can ensure that not only the full range ofhabitats is maintained at an appropriate scale, so too are the connec-

LIVING LANDSCAPES PROGRAM / BULLETIN 2

Upcoming Bulletins:•What is a Landscape Species?•Selecting Landscape Species•Developing a Monitoring System•Managing Wildlife Use•Community-based Wildlife Conservation•NGO/Private Sector Par tnerships

Contacts:Living Landscapes Program Wildlife Conservation Society2300 Southern Blvd. Bronx, NY 10460 USA

LLP@wcs.orgwww.wcslivinglandscapes.org living

landscapes bulletin 2

Through the Eyes of WildlifeThe Wildlife Conservation Society’s Living Landscapes Program looksthrough the eyes of wildlife to define the boundaries of landscapesessential to wildlife conservation. Where we may see a continuousblock of forest, an elephant perceives a complex matrix of food, watersites and migratory paths. Only by looking through the eyes of ani-mals, by understanding their needs, can we define conservation landsthat will ensure a future for wildlife in an increasingly human-influ-enced landscape. We call this the Landscape Species Approach, a cor-nerstone of the WCS Living Landscapes program.

The Big PictureThe Landscape Species Approach is designed to identify the needs ofkey animal species, following them beyond political or ecological bor-ders, to develop better ways for people and wildlife to share the earth’sliving landscapes. Conservation focused solely within the limits ofnational parks, or community forests, or trophy-hunting conservan-cies, often does not succeed because wildlife, ecological processes, andhuman resource-uses often spill across these borders. Regardless ofhow large or small a protected area may be, the plants and animals itcontains are often threatened either directly or indirectly by humanresource uses, even when these uses occur outside reserve boundaries.Management of protected areas cannot therefore occur in isolationfrom the surrounding human-dominated landscape, but must take intoaccount where and how human activities conflict with biodiversityconservation, and where conservation adversely affects human wel-fare.

SEPTEMBER 2001

tions between these essentialhabitat patches. Lastly, bydefining the conservationlandscape to meet the needsof healthy, functioning popu-lations of wildlife, this WCSapproach sets a higher stan-dard for conservation.

© W

CS

/ D

avid

Wilk

ie

© W

CS

/ A

my

Vedd

er

wcs