OIL PIPELINE SPILLS AND THE EFFECTS ON GROUNDWATER AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CATASTROPHESElizabeth Michaelson & Kate Vogel

ABSTRACTAlthough oil is an integral part of the world’s livelihood and economy, oil pipelines are insidious to the environment and living creatures. The effects of a pipeline burst are endless and the cleanup is very costly. This research paper aims to investigate the effects of oil pipeline spills on groundwater and the environment, as well as how the United States responds to these detrimental events.

INTRODUCTIONFrom birth, America has been a machine for industry. The invention of the cotton gin and assembly line proved America to be an early front-runner of the industrial revolution. On the turn of the 19th century, the country began to boom economically. With an exponential population rate and a relentless growth of modern technology, reliable energy emerged as a fundamental need. Industrialist John D. Rockefeller spearheaded a monopoly utilizing petroleum as his money making power. Over 100 years later this country remains dependent on this resource for energy and now economy. Oil pipelines are used today to transport crude oil, gasoline, and natural gas to and from refineries all over the country and world. They stretch across countryside, wilderness, and urban areas.

Figure 1 Oil Pipelines Throughout the United States

Citations: Oil Industry. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.history.com/topics/oil-industry

RESEARCHOil Pipeline Weathering and CorrosionAs with most manmade systems, oil pipelines are not immune to weathering and corrosion. The pipelines are composed of steel; coated with a special sealant, such as epoxy to fight against corrosion; and electric current paired with an additional metal to protect from an excess electronegative charge. However, sludge build-up, high water content in the solution, and loosening of the pipe’s coating can cancel out these measures and allow leaks and bursts to occur. Older, less durable piping may also experience stress corrosion. High-flow pressure inside and pressure of the outside system (many pipelines exist underground) cause the pipe to crack. Citations: Weathering. (2014, January 1). Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://www.itopf.com/knowledgeresources/documents-guides/fate-of-oil-spills/weathering/

Oil SpillsI. The Occurrence Once the piping experiences too much stress, it ruptures, leading to a spill. After exiting the concealed environment of the pipe, several physical and chemical processes take place. First, the oil spreads over the land surface. Depending on the internal pressure and viscosity, the oil may leak out or express itself like a fountain –similar to that of an artesian well. After the oil is exposed to open air, components will evaporate, adding compounds such as methane, a common greenhouse gas to the atmosphere. If the spill occurs near a body of water, the oil interacts, dispersing, dissolving and emulsifying within the water. This means that the oil’s composition will break up amongst the water molecules.

When this mixing occurs, purifying the water on a large scale is nearly impossible. This contaminated water will continue to move with the general body of water, increasing the span of the pollution. Overtime, the oil will oxidize, creating a toxic and pungent odor. This acrid smelling gas is highly carcinogenic and harmful to respiratory systems. Continuing the degradation, oil particles will participate in the creation of sedimentary rocks, deeply embedding the compounds into the soil and rock composition –entering the groundwater system. Finally, microorganisms will consume the remnants, breaking down into molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and ammonia (NH3). Citations: Pipelines. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.sciencemediacentre.ca/smc/docs/pipelines.pdf; Patrick, J. (2011, May 2). The Effects of Oil Spills in Ground Water. Retrieved March 27, 2015, from http://www.ehow.com/info_8340758_effects-oil-spills-ground-water.html

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Figure 2 Dispersion of Oil in the Gulf of Mexico from the BP Spill

MICHAELSON, VOGELII. Effects on the Environment Following a spill, biological organisms struggle to continue their cellular processes. When plant life is exposed to oil, the chloroplast in its cells becomes covered, cutting off photosynthesis, slowly suffocating until supply of nutrients runs out. This contamination can cause widespread die-off, deteriorating habitats and sources of food for many other organisms. Once the basic foundation of the environment’s ecosystem is disturbed, higher organisms will be forced to adapt, leave, or die-off –causing the area’s biodiversity to decrease, creating greater concern for already at risk species.

Figure 3 Coldwater Lake –Alberta, Canada where the river banks have experienced extreme die-off

Separate from contamination at the ecosystem’s level, animals may directly come in contact with the oil. This contact irritates and burns the eyes and skin, while also disrupting the animal’s cellular processes. Smaller animals may be left smothered by the oil, while larger species like birds and otters may become coated, losing their ability to regulate body temperature. Studies have shown that the reproductive cycles for sea turtles and species of fish have also experienced lower birth rates and additional developmental problems.This contamination additionally affects organisms below the soil surface. Similarly to plants suffocating, when oil slicks cover the top of the unsaturated soil zone, any life below the surface may experience a cut off in oxygen and solar radiation supply. Citations: OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Biodegradation Definition. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=203; How Oil Harms Animals and Plants in Marine Environments | response.restoration.noaa.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/how-oil-harms-animals-and-plants.html; Ober, H. (n.d.). Effects of Oil Spills on Marine and Coastal Wildlife. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw330

III. Effects on Human Life Although wildlife is increasingly sensitive to oil pollution, human life experiences major setbacks as well. Human life is not invincible and experiences the same health destruction as plants and animals. When ingested through food or water, issues such as intestinal irritation and bleeding, ulcers, and diarrhea may occur. Direct absorption through the skin may cause even more detrimental effects like damaging the kidneys and liver, contributing to anemia, weakening the

immune system, and interrupting reproductive processes. Inhalation is especially insidious in the way it affects the respiratory system –inflammation, pneumonia, and possibly emphysema.Considering that oil can infiltrate groundwater reservoirs, dissolved oil can be taken up in drinking wells. In more modern societies this may be less of a concern due to excessive filtration, but developing and rural regions truly suffer the consequences from water impurities. Drilling new wells or importing drinking water can be extremely costly, frequently leaving poorer regions with limited, often polluted water. Furthermore, if groundwater becomes contaminated, the polluted water will eventually travel to the surface, possibly contaminating surface water. Unrelated to general health, oil pollution harms the economy. Many geographical areas rely on eco-tourism to support their local economy. For instance, British Petroleum’s Deepwater Horizon spill of 2010 turned many flourishing beach areas in the Gulf Coast to toxic, deserted tar sands. Local businesses suffered and many workers lost their jobs. It is also commonplace for property values of homes to plummet in the region of a spill, destroying equity of the residents. Citations: Get Informed. (n.d.). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from http://www.groundwater.org/getinformed/groundwater/contamination.html;

Case StudiesI. Isukwuato, Nigeria The Nigerian Department of Petroleum Resources estimated that over 2.4 million barrels of oil spilled into the country’s major river delta over a 30 year span in the late 1900’s. More than half of these spills in this region have occurred from tanker and pipeline accidents. Unfortunately, this region’s problem has ceased to improve. As of January 2015, Royal Dutch Shell was set to contribute 83 million US dollars to river’s local fisherman and community for damages from two 2008 spills. From this specific event, nearly four square miles of mangrove trees were destroyed, along with the area’s fish and shellfish –which provided nutrition and jobs to the area. In 2003, a pipeline spill created an explosive fire that took the life of over 100 civilians. From this long period of pollution, studies have been conducted to understand the consequences. Samples from local wells concluded a high level of hydrocarbons present, decreased levels of dissolved oxygen, and high conductivity values. These three problematic characteristics of the community’s drinking water confirmed the infiltration of oil into the ground water system. Many hydrocarbons exhibit carcinogenic properties; lower levels of oxygen (hypoxia) can cause pollutants to exit their pores in sediments, further contaminating the water; and high conductivity values may hint at the presence of heavy metals. Fortunately these values decreased over several months of testing, but for a region with high poverty and rural living this causes extreme water scarcity for an already at risk population. Citations: Hypoxia. (n.d.). Ecological Society of America Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/named/msbasin/upload/hypoxia.pdf;

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MICHAELSON, VOGELShell to pay $83.5m for Nigeria oil spill. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2015/01/shell-pay-835m-nigeria-oil-spill-2015173836649846.html; Assessment of the effects of oil spillage on groundwater in an inland basin of southeastern Nigeria | Ojiegbe | International Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijonas/article/view/36040

II. Bemidji, Minnesota July of 1976, more than 13,000 barrels of oil spread into the wilderness of northern Minnesota. Due to weather conditions, some of the pollution sprayed into a protected wetland, while the other portion flowed over glacial deposits, successfully infiltrating the unsaturated zone. Both areas managed to cause significant damage; first by slicking a natural habitat with oil and secondly by allowing oil to percolate into the soil, leading to groundwater contamination. Sadly the oil managed to travel over 150 meters in the local aquifer from the infiltration cite creating long-term pollution to the region. Citations: Ground Water Contamination by Crude Oil near Bemidji, Minnesota. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://mn.water.usgs.gov/projects/bemidji/results/fact-sheet.pdf

III. Kalamazoo, Michigan The largest on-shore oil spill in American history occurred July 2010 by Canadian oil-mogul, Enbridge. Flowing into the Kalamazoo River, oil from a pipeline flowed for seventeen straight hours before being shut off. During investigation, it was revealed that Enbridge had well-documented accounts of cracks in corroded areas of the pipeline, yet had not acted to repair. This lack of corporate responsibility caused local residents headaches, nausea, and breathing difficulties. Coming from tar sands in Canada, the pipeline deposited especially viscous crude oil flowing towards Lake Michigan.Citations: EPA Response to Enbridge Spill in Michigan. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.epa.gov/enbridgespill/; Growth of Tar Sands Across the Midwest - National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Drilling-and-Mining/Tar-Sands/Michigan-Oil-Spill.aspx;

IV. Lake Michigan Under the Straits of Mackinaw, lie underwater pipelines owned by the same company involved in the Kalamazoo River spill, Enbridge. Paranoia in recent years has led to external inspection from the company. Constructed in the 1950’s, this line has a variety of safety features to prevent corrosion. The independent research determined the pipeline in decent shape, but environmentalists are staying skeptical. When asked to release records on the underwater pipeline, the company refused. To gauge the preparedness for a burst, a journalist questioned a Great Lakes US Coast Guard for insight. To the general public’s dismay, it was reported that no one is adequately prepared to respond to a spill due to an extreme lack of equipment and surveillance. Citations: Matheny, K. (n.d.). Coast Guard: We can't adequately respond to Great Lakes heavy oil spill. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2014/09/11/coast-guard-we-cant-adequately-respond-to-great-lakes-heavy-oil-spill/15422415/; What's the status of the old oil pipeline under Lake Michigan? We need

more information to know. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://michiganradio.org/post/whats-status-old-oil-pipeline-under-lake-michigan-we-need-more-information-know

Figure Enbridge Lake Michigan Pipeline Investigation

CleanupI. Soil Disposal After a spill occurs, the surrounding sediments absorb the oil making the soil contaminated. In order to reestablish the health of the area, the soil must be removed and disposed. On dry land, the soil can be dug up, however removing tainted soil under water is more complex. In this case, large machines, called dredges collect the sediments under the water’s surface. Dredging is costly monetarily and energy wise. Additionally, the contaminated soil must be contained during cleanup; specially designed barriers can help prevent the spread. Once the soil is collected it must be treated and disposed. This process includes chemical treatment and sometimes incineration. Afterwards, the remnants may be added to a landfill or recycled to create asphalt. Citations: Get Informed. (n.d.). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from http://www.groundwater.org/getinformed/groundwater/contamination.html;Oil Spill Pollution. (2009, January 1). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from http://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/oil-spill/

II. Responsibility Enormous in comparison to Royal Dutch Shell’s debt in Nigeria, Enbridge is paying the price of their spill in Kalamazoo: 1.2 billion US dollars in damages. These costs amounted for the river’s cleanup, where over 35 miles of riverbed was dredged. This cost also accounts for the wildlife destroyed in the spill and cleanup, fortunately indigenous plant species have been replanted in hopes of the river restoring to its original location. As of October, 2014, all portions of the river were opened for public use. However controversy continues as residents are upset that new pipeline construction has begun, yet personal properties along the river have yet to be restored to their prior condition. Citations: Williams, R. (n.d.). Landowners upset about delays in property restoration as new Enbridge pipeline opens. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://michiganradio.org/post/landowners-upset-about-delays-property-restoration-new-enbridge-pipeline-opens; Rosemary Parker (n.d.). Enbridge oil cleanup on the Kalamazoo River finished, all sections of the river open for public use. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.mlive.com/news/kalamazoo/index.ssf/2014/10/enbridge_oil_cleanup_on_the_ka.html

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MICHAELSON, VOGELPoliticsI. Politicalization and Polarization Within the US government, there exists a strong tie between corporations and the elected officials. Following the 2000 presidential election, George W. Bush and Dick Cheney were brought into the White House. Both politicians well known for their personal involvement in corporate oil, set out to reform the country’s energy platform. Together, employees from Exxon Mobil, Conoco, Shell Oil, BP American, and Chevron worked with Cheney to rewrite tax laws to give significant tax cuts and billions in subsidies. Approved by a Republican dominated congress, the Energy Policy Act of 2005 was signed into law. The policy offered 14.5 billion US dollars to coal, gas, oil, and nuclear energy companies in tax breaks. This same law decreased oil regulations and cut back on clean water protections.During the eight years of Bush’s incumbency, 393 million US dollars were spent from the gas industry to lobbying the federal sector. 82 million was directly funneled to political action committees, 80 percent of that distribution going to Republicans. Citations: Oil Politics. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/347/oil-politics.html

II. Legalities North Dakota –the United States second most powerful oil producer, was discovered to have concealed 300 oil spills that occurred in less than a two year span. As decreed by state legislature, the government is not required to release information regarding oil spills. Naturally, environmental organizations and citizens feel genuine concern. Without proper reporting, groundwater purity and soil contamination remains unknown. Citations: North Dakota recorded 300 oil spills in two years without notifying the public. (2013, January 1). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/25/north-dakota-oil-pipeline-spills-secrecy

III. Environmental Regulations In the United States, there are many regulations for the transportation of oil by pipelines. Until the Office of Pipeline Safety (OPS) certifies a pipeline, it is not cleared for use. Additionally, the US Department of Transportation’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) monitors the safety and construction of pipelines. PHMSA ensures that pipelines are safe and able to withstand environmental conditions. Citations: Fallon, A. (n.d.). Oil and gas regulation in the United States: Overview. Retrieved March 15, 2015, from http://us.practicallaw.com/9-525-1545?source=relatedcontent#a459735

Alternatives and Future TechnologyI. Smart Pipelines Impeccable engineering is the best way to prevent oil spills. Aside from weathering, oil pipelines are also subject to natural disasters, which cause the pipelines to rip from their

foundations. When an earthquake occurs under a pipeline shifting from the original foundation cause bursts. Engineers in Alaska were concerned of possible pipeline fractures along the Denali fault line. To prevent the possible risk in the untouched wilderness, the pipeline was redesigned to withstand a horizontal shift of 20 feet and 8 feet vertically –the maximum shift predicted from a magnitude 8 earthquake. Indeed an earthquake occurred along the Denali fault nearly thirty years after the construction of the pipe –of 7.9 magnitude. Fortunately the engineers calculations and estimations were accurate. The fault shifted 14 feet horizontally and 2.5 feet vertically, leaving the pipeline intact and the local ecosystems spared. Citations: Burak, P. (n.d.). The Alaskan Pipeline: A Necessary Obstruction? Retrieved March 30, 2015, from http://sitemaker.umich.edu/section003_group001/home; Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline Survives 7.9 Quake. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2003/fs014-03/pipeline.html

II. Alternative Energy Other energy resources exist aside from oil, however it remains the most cost effective. However the cost associated with pipeline bursts provide an argument for utilizing new sources of energy. Alternatives like solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric energy have expensive start off costs, but pay off over time. Conveniently these alternatives offer a more conscious carbon footprint and present minimal risks to the environment. Citations: Cooperman, G. (2004, December 13). 3 Energy Sources other than Petroleum. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/gene/peakoil/node3.html#SECTION00031030000000000000

CONCLUDING REMARKSPollution of our environment is a continuous problem that is unlikely to end soon. The greatest obstacle standing in the way of ending oil-based contamination is the lack of voice presented by the general public and those who experience the contamination. Wildlife and their habitats are not able to convey their turmoil; neither are people living in rural, developing areas –like those affected in Nigeria. Oil companies can talk and buy their way out of problems, yet those at risk are silenced. To make a change, people need to organize and stand strong to support the environment and clean water efforts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThank you to Dr. Castro for being an inspiring professor and so passionate on the class’ subject.

REFERENCESAssessment of the effects of oil spillage on groundwater in an inland basin of southeastern Nigeria | Ojiegbe | International Journal of Natural and Applied Sciences. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ijonas/article/view/36040

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MICHAELSON, VOGELBurak, P. (n.d.). The Alaskan Pipeline: A Necessary Obstruction? Retrieved March 30, 2015, from http://sitemaker.umich.edu/section003_group001/home

EPA Response to Enbridge Spill in Michigan. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.epa.gov/enbridgespill/

Fallon, A. (n.d.). Oil and gas regulation in the United States: Overview. Retrieved March 15, 2015, from http://us.practicallaw.com/9-525-1545?source=relatedcontent#a459735

Garret Ellison (n.d.). New price tag for Kalamazoo River oil spill cleanup: Enbridge says $1.21 billion. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.mlive.com/news/grand-rapids/index.ssf/2014/11/2010_oil_spill_cost_enbridge_1.html

Get Informed. (n.d.). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from http://www.groundwater.org/getinformed/groundwater/contamination.html

Growth of Tar Sands Across the Midwest - National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Drilling-and-Mining/Tar-Sands/Michigan-Oil-Spill.aspx;

How Oil Harms Animals and Plants in Marine Environments | response.restoration.noaa.gov. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/oil-and-chemical-spills/oil-spills/how-oil-harms-animals-and-plants.html

Hypoxia. (n.d.). Ecological Society of America Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/named/msbasin/upload/hypoxia.pdf

Matheny, K. (n.d.). Coast Guard: We can't adequately respond to Great Lakes heavy oil spill. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2014/09/11/coast-guard-we-cant-adequately-respond-to-great-lakes-heavy-oil-spill/15422415/

North Dakota recorded 300 oil spills in two years without notifying the public. (2013, January 1). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/25/north-dakota-oil-pipeline-spills-secrecy

Ober, H. (n.d.). Effects of Oil Spills on Marine and Coastal Wildlife. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/uw330

OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Biodegradation Definition. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=203Oil Industry. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.history.com/topics/oil-industry

Oil Politics. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/347/oil-politics.html

Oil Spill Pollution. (2009, January 1). Retrieved March 23, 2015, from http://www.environmentalpollutioncenters.org/oil-spill/

Patrick, J. (2011, May 2). The Effects of Oil Spills in Ground Water. Retrieved March 27, 2015, from http://www.ehow.com/info_8340758_effects-oil-spills-ground-water.html

Rosemary Parker (n.d.). Enbridge oil cleanup on the Kalamazoo River finished, all sections of the river open for public use. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.mlive.com/news/kalamazoo/index.ssf/2014/10/enbridge_oil_cleanup_on_the_ka.html

Shell to pay $83.5m for Nigeria oil spill. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2015/01/shell-pay-835m-nigeria-oil-spill-2015173836649846.html

Pipelines. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://www.sciencemediacentre.ca/smc/docs/pipelines.pdf

Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline Survives 7.9 Quake. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2003/fs014-03/pipeline.html

Weathering. (2014, January 1). Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://www.itopf.com/knowledgeresources/documents-guides/fate-of-oil-spills/weathering/

What's the status of the old oil pipeline under Lake Michigan? We need more information to know. (n.d.). Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://michiganradio.org/post/whats-status-old-oil-pipeline-under-lake-michigan-we-need-more-information-know

Williams, R. (n.d.). Landowners upset about delays in property restoration as new Enbridge pipeline opens. Retrieved April 3, 2015, from http://michiganradio.org/post/landowners-upset-about-delays-property-restoration-new-enbridge-pipeline-open

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