DESIGN STYLES PHILOSOPHY INFLUENCES ON DESIGN CULTURE

PICTURE

Influences of design history on the development of products p131-RM p119GR

William Morris William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3 October 1896) was an English textile designer, artist, writer, and socialist associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and the English Arts and Crafts Movement.

William stated to design his own materials and pattern when moving to Bexley Heath as he was annoyed that he could find no good textiles and furniture to decorate his new home. With friends Burne-Jones, Rosetti, and Webb he formed a small firm, later called Morris and Company, to sell the products they designed.

William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement

Simplicity – Interiors were visually simplistic

Nature – nature and animals were used as form of inspiration

Fitness for purpose Honestly in design

and making, the return to the designer – craftsman as a reaction against industrialisation.

In the 19th century technical advances led to

The design of mass-produced products, such as furniture was often overlooked as imitations of over decorated and sized furniture was being made.

This was highly inappropriate as the ordinary people that they were made for required simple and in expensive products for their small houses.

Charles Rennie Macintosh Charles (June 7 1868 – December 10 1928) was educated at the Glasgow School of Art where there is now a collection of his work.

An outstanding exponent of the Art Nouveau style, Charles was responsible for the Glasgow School of Art (1897- 1899), its library block (1907-1909), the Cranston Tearooms and Hill House in Helensburgh. his work, often done with his wife, Margaret Macdonald, included interior design, textiles, furniture and metalwork.

Charles Rennie Macintosh and the

Art Nouveau movement

Curvy ‘whiplash’ lines and stylised flowers.Languid feminine form

• Flowing/wavy/sweeping/curly/whiplash lines. (1)• Based on the style of nature/natural forms. (1)• Stylised climbing plants/insects/flowers/female form. (1)• Decorative/personalised/handcrafted style. (1)• Celtic/Arabian/Japanese/ancient Greek patterns gave inspiration.(1)• Used modern materials/glass and wrought iron. (1)• Used in architecture, glass, jewellery, fabrics & wallpaper. (1)

The languid (lazy) line.The formation of new aesthetic values for a new urban lifestyle.

Form a bridge from Art Nouveau to Arts and Crafts and Modernism, between decorative and modern.

Marcel Breuer Marcel Lajos Breuer (22 May 1902 Pécs, Hungary – 1 July 1981 New York City), architect and furniture designer, was an influential Hungarian-born modernist of Jewish descent. One of the masters of Modernism, Breuer displayed interest

in modular construction and simple forms.

Marcel Breuer and the

Bauhaus modernist movement

The machine aesthetic using modern materials.

Simple, geometrically pure forms and clean llines.

Functionalism Reducing form the

most essential elements by omitting decorative frills.

The change from school to workshops intended to remove any distinction between fine arts and applied arts.

Eileen Gray Was born and raised in Ireland to wealthy family of artists and began her university career in the Slade School or Fine Arts in London as a painter.

Held her first exhibition in 1913 showing some decorative panel at the Salon des Artistes Decorates in Paris

Eileen Gray and the

Art Deco movement

Zig-zagged, geometric fan motifs.Symmetry and repetition.Inspiration from ancient Egypt.• Took in hand crafted and machine manufacture. (1)• Has an opulent style. (1)• Influenced by cubist paintings of Picasso & Braque. (1)• Primitive art forms African/Aztec/Egyptian art used. (1)• Used geometric/symmetrical/simple shapes, zig zag patterns/chevrons/sunbursts. (1)• Bright colours used. (1)• Designs strong/bold shapes/sharp edges. (1)• Style based on smooth shapes. (1)• Used in jewellery/buildings/perfume bottles/radios. (1)• Expensive/exotic materials/enamel/ivory/polished stone/chromeused. (1)• Art Deco designs to be made at low cost through mass production.(1)

Popular modernismOpulent architectural and decorative arts style and reaction to post-war austerity

Reymond Lowey Raymond Loewy (November 5, 1893 – July 14, 1986) Raymond Loewy launched his career in industrial design in 1929 when Sigmund Gestetner, a British manufacturer of duplicating machines, commissioned him to improve the appearance of a mimeograph machine. In three days 28-year-old Loewy designed the shell that was to encase Gestetner duplicators for the next 40 years. In the process, he helped launch a profession that has changed the look of America• Much of Loewy’s work merged Art Deco style with producingstreamlined forms. (1)• The shapes looked modern/futuristic/used the tear drop shape. (1)• Success came from improving/enhancing the appearance/aestheticsof products. (1)

• His work put industrial design in the spotlight / modernisedindustrial design. (1)• Worked on company identities for multinational companies. (1)• Spent time streamlining a broad range of items. (1)• Many of his designs are still in use today. (1)• Used streamlining to shape/smooth vehicles aerodynamically i.e.(slanted windshield/built in headlights). (1)• Streamlining allowed for greater efficiency/speed/reduce drag.(1)• Streamlining improved the style/appearance/aesthetics of items. (1)

Reymond Lowey and streamlining AerodynamicsTeardrop shapeFuturistic inspiration• Streamlining allows air to pass over the shape of the vehicle (1)without causing disturbances. (1)• Allows the car to pass through the air (1) with less friction. (1)• It is pointed (1) so it passes through the air more efficiently. (1)• Less fuel is used (1) to overcome air resistance. (1)(

Consumerism and styleNew prosperity and widened consumer choiceCelebrating speed and efficiency

Shaping of an object, such as an aircraft body or wing, to reduce the amount of drag or resistance to motion through a stream of air

Phillipe Stark Philippe Patrick Starck (born January 18, 1949, Paris) Plilippe is a French product designer and probably the best known designer in the New Design style. His designs range from interior designs to mass produced consumer goods such as toothbrushes, chairs, and even houses.

Phillipe Stark and the new design style (post Modernism)

Humour and personality Retro design Deconstruction

“Less is a bore!” expressive and individual as opposed to modernist functionalism

The post modernism began with architecture as a reaction against the perceived blandness and hostility present in modernist architecture as preached by the Bauhaus.

p132-RM p135GR

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

form follows function (functionality as prime driver)

• Its form makes it a lifestyle statement / product. (1)• The form not necessarily ergonomically designed / not comfortable.(1)• Very decorative / stylised / Art Nouveau. (1)• Form means that it will probably be small batch produced. (1)• Materials used are less functional but enhance the form. (1)• Designed for low manufacturing numbers. (1)• Its function is to be aesthetically pleasing

/ looks good. (1)• Appearance is its main function. (1)• Designed to fit in with the whole room design / appearance. (1)• Fits a niche market. (1)Functionalists support the view that products should be fit for purpose without any unnecessary decoration.

Form over function (aesthetics as a prime driver)

• Primary focus of the design is to function well, which then dictatesthe styling. (1)• To be comfortable / stable / strong. (1)• There is no added decoration / not highly stylised. (1)• Looks machine made / designed for machine manufacture /designed or mass production.(1)• Mass production reduces the cost of the chair. (1)• Economic materials used. (1)Supporters advocate the aesthetic qualities of products in contributing towards an overall aesthetically pleasing environment

CHARACTERISTICS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

information and communications

technologyEmail It’s the simplest form of electronic

communication and has a comparatively low level of reach and range when it is used for messaging or transferring documents. It has proved invaluable in rapid communications between designers, manufacturers, retailers and consumers due to its ease of use and widespread access through Internet connections. There are issues of security and privacy when using e-mail and limitations on the size of attachments

Quick, easy convenient means of commutating around the world. 1. Paperless society / supports sustainability. (1)2. Documents can be attached electronically. (1)3. Documents can be saved / edited easily. (1)4. Convenient / easy way of communicating. (1)5. Efficient / received almost immediately. (1)6. Email messages less formal and they are also usually shorter andmore to the point. (1)7. Correspondence can be managed on screen. (1)8. Proposal can be answered / revised / stored / sent to otherswithout reams of paper involved. (1)9. The reader can identify critical correspondence quickly anddealt with it immediately. (1)10.Quicker than posting. (1) (Do not accept quicker/cheaper/fasteras a single word answer, it MUST be qualified.)11.Minimum running costs (1) but high set up costs. (1)12.Cheap to send (1) only

Limitations of size of attachmentsPrivacy and security issues as messages can be intercepted and read.1. Privacy / security issues as messages can be intercepted & read. (1)2. Data can get lost. (1)3. Impersonal & some messages can be misinterpreted / misread /misunderstood. (1)4. Limitations on size of attachments. (1)5. Possible virus infection. (1)6. Time wasting / spam / unsolicited junk mail. (1)7. Not always suitable for serious business documents ortransactions requiring signatures.(1)8. E mails can easily be ignored / allows for misunderstanding. (1)9. Too many e-mails can lead to management problems / in-boxbeing overwhelmed by mail. (1)10.Removes face to face meeting/ impersonal contact. (1)11.Software used must be compatible between users. (1)

accept if qualified by bulk posting.13.Allows rapid billing. (1)

electronic data interchange EDI is a new way for companies to do “paperless” business using a process that transfers business documents through a computer network, rather than via the postal system.

Save money by taking away the need for processing paper documentsSaves time as information is transferred digitallyImproves customer service as business documents are transferred quickly with fewer errors• EDI can save companies money/more efficient. (1)• No limit on size of documents. (1)• Secure method of transferring information. (1)• Data translated into a common format between sites/companies.(1)• More reliable than e-mail. (1)• Limits the amount of human interaction. (1)• Use of data from the exchange reduces the handling costs ofsorting/ distributing/organising/searching for paper documents. (1)• EDI reduces the chances of transcription error. (1)• Information handling is greatly reduced. (1)• Creates a paperless company. (1)

Standards updated regularly which causes problems with different versions in useExpensive to initially set upLimits trading to only companies with EDIIncompatibility with some companies due to range of standards document formats

isdn ISDN in concept is the integration of both analogue or voice data together with digital data over the same network

The purpose of ISN is to provide fully integrated digital services to users comprising digital telephony and data transport services through existing telephone networks • High speed/faster connection/more efficient. (1)• Wide bandwidth. (1)• Lets digital data to pass along analogue telephonelines. (1)• Modems at input end convert computer digital datainto audible tones. (1)• Modems at output end convert signals back to digital.(1)• Allows for shared use of networks. (1)• Allows telephone & internet use at the same time onlater versions/with early versions users had todisconnect. (1)

 Connection speed is up to 100 times faster than dialup connection.  You can download pictures files, software in seconds or minutes instead of hours.  Online gaming is only possible using a broadband internet access.It is convenient because the internet connection is always on.

High monthly fee compared to dialup internet access.Higher security risk than dialup connection.  A personal firewall is needed to protect your computer.

• Can be installed over existing telephone lines. (1)• Lines can be used for voice/data (1)• Broadband is cheaper. (1)• Broadband easier to set up. (1)• Allows easy access to the web. (1)• ISDN is a dial up service (1).

broadband • Broadband is faster. (1)• Allows for an always on line service. (1)• No need for dialling a number to get connected. (1)• Frees up local land line when on line. (1)• No call up charges when using the internet. (1)• Data does not need to be converted. (1)• Provides two channels on the phone line. (1)• Allows for wireless connections. (1)• Can be used at hotspots. (1)• Allows more than one user to connect. (1)• 3G/4G/satellite/allow it to be used anywhere. (1)• No interference on connection. (1)• Can handle more/large amounts of data.(1)• Allows for more complex software to be used (1).

local area network LAN's are closed networks which are limited to sharing data, information, communications and resources within an organisation.

Easy to share devices (printers, scanners, external drives) Easy to share data (homework, pictures..)Build a complex enough one and you may get enough experience to get a new job. Cost of LAN Setup is low.

Power - a good LAN is required to be on all the times. security - each computer and device become another point of entry for undesirables. Upkeep - when things go wrong or the software gets updated. Frustration if having a problem setting up. A lot of times a network shares one Internet connection - if all computers running at once, can reduce speed for each. Area covered is limited.

global networks internet The Internet is the international computer network linking together thousands of individual networks. The World Wide Web (www) is the familiar collection of inter-connected documents and files, such as websites, which are accessible through the Internet.

video conferencing ISDN and broadband have enabled high speed data and communication transfer, which can be used in a video conferencing. Video Conferencing allows a two way video and audio transmissionsIt includes a cameras to capture the image, a screen to view images, microphones to pick up sound and loudspeaker to play soundsThere are two types of videoconferencing systems:Dedicated systemDesktop system

Eliminates the need for travel to other countries, saving both time and moneyCorporate training of many staff at the same time

1. Allows face to face communication. (1)2. Brings people at different sites together for a meeting. (1)3. Saves time / money because people do not have to travel to acentral meeting point. (1)4. Quicker to set up meetings because travel not necessary.

Synchronization of time of meeting in different time zones across the worldConnection can failLack of direct Eye contact can hinder e.g. a negotiationCamera shyness can hinder e.g. a negotiation

(1)5. Visual information easily communicated. (1)6. Speeds up decision making as presentations can be made toseveral people in different locations simultaneously. (1)7. Remote diagnostics available with technicians in differentcountries. (1)8. Allows for corporate training on a world wide basis. (1)9. Teams can work together even if in different locations. (1)10.Synchronising time of meeting in different time zones across theworld can be a problem. (1)11.Connections can often fail. (1)12.Lack of eye contact with others can hinder conversation orintent. (1)13.Camera shyness can hinder presentations due to be filmed oftenrecorded. (1)14.More environmentally friendly. (1)15.Less chance of misunderstanding between members. (1)

electronic point of sale EPOS is a way for business to supply and deliver its products and services faster by reducing the time between the placing of an order and the delivery of a productEach product has a unique barcode and its own 13 digit number which means it can be detected

Employee work rate can be recorded and their performance can be evaluated fairly.More accuracy and less time consuming.Bills can be itemized therefore, less mistake in billing.Stores prices and does calculations automatically- doesnt have to be memorized.• It gives a full and instant account of alltransactions/stock levels (1)• It gives the means to monitor on a daily basis, theperformance/popularity/demand of all products (1)• Ensure stock is reordered before it runs out (1)• Ensure over stocking does not happen (1)• Prevents unnecessary capital being tied up (1)• It provides data which can be automatically loaded intofinancial analysis spreadsheets (1)• EPOS reduces the time between order and receipt of aproduct (1)• Reduced human error (1)

EPOS systems are expensive to install.This software requires regular maintenance.This software has to be updated if competitive edge is to be maintained against rival company systems.

• Reduced labour force/cost (1)

internet marketing The development of the Internet has made it easier for businesses to market Instant global reach, access to new markets and an increase customer baseDetailed knowledge of user preferences leading to improved customer service through better product and after sales supportReduce time to marketAn increased company profile on a worldwide basis

Abiliity to market your services for free or at a low cost. Ability to sell anything online. Ability to collect payment online. So many business models on the internet that it supercedes or traditional business models by a mile. Lot's of resources freely available online. Lot's of how-to resources.

• Companies can reach a wide audience/largemarket/global• Cheaper than advertising via TV/papers/magazines. (1)• Increased company profile on a world wide basis. (1)• Businesses can reach consumers in a medium that bringsresults quickly. (1)• Greener/saves paper. (1)• Marketers can determine which messages or offerings aremore appealing to the audience/cookies/pop ups. (1)• Information/adverts can be updated immediately. (1)• Results of campaigns can be measured/trackedimmediately.(1)• Can be aimed at/sent to specific target groups. (1)• Shows detailed knowledge immediately of userpreferences/ market tends by tracking sales. (1)• Cost savings due to reduced sales force/need for retailoutlets. (1)• Advertising this way has a lower carbon footprint/lowerglobal warming. (1)• Links to related sites easily made. (1)

Confusing and way too many things to learn. The more you know, the more you feel the more you have yet to know. Typical business models last for 2 years but internet businesses sometimes lose appeal after 6 months. Intense competition. Overwhelming knowledge to be learned. Too many skills to learn.

Biotechnology

quicker-growing trees, orto supply wood that resists wear, rot or infestation

Genetically modified trees that are produced for high yields of wood pulpsThey are inserted in with a gene to change the trees biological characteristics.

Quicker growing trees to provide a sustainable supply of wood pulpResistance to disease and insect attack to provide high quality productsReduced strength of lignin fibres enabling a reduction in the amount of chemicals needed in

Long term side effects not yet apparent

“Escape” of modified genes into natural ecosystems

Development of tolerance to the modified trait by insects or disease organisms

Rapid growth could cause shorter, more intensive

the paper making process• Taller trees (1) therefore longer sections available (1)• Fewer natural faults (eg knots/branches) in the timber(1) therefore less timber needs removing duringpreparation saving material and time costs/reducedweaknesses (1)• Increased resistance to rot/pests/disease (1) thereforeless cost involved in treating the timber (1) / thereforereduced need to repair/replace timbers/increaseddurability (1) / increased yield (1)• Quicker growing trees (1) therefore timber could beused from a more sustainable/cheaper/plentiful source(1)• Timber with greater flexibility (1) which allows bendsto be made more easily/with less cracking (1)• Timber with better compression properties (1) whichincreases the strength /allows less timber to be used(1)• A range of colours can be genetically engineered intothe timber (1) Reducing the need for artificial colouring(1)• Reduced lignin content (1) reduces the need forchemical processing (1)

rotations.

In Paper and Board • Reduction of Lignin in trees. (1)• Reduction of chemicals used. (1)• Less toxic chemicals needed. (1)• Increased growth rate of trees/higher yields of timber. (1)• Trees can be grown with specific properties for paper/boardindustry/ trees can be grown with a specific pigment or colour. (1)• Enzymes break down timber fibres more efficiently. (1)• Paper fibres can be more effectively bonded/stronger paper. (1)• Paper treated to biodegrade more easily/quicker. (1)• Increased resistance to disease/rot/insect infestation. (1)(

MATERIAL SOURCES MANUFACTURE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Biopol Carbohydrate Polyhydroxyalkanoate is Fully degradable in suitable conditions, Damages recycled plastic

SugarExtracted polymerPlastic product

produced by fermentation (carbohydrates and sugar) and other carbohydrates, and then extracted white powdered polymer is added.

• Biopol exposed to micro-organisms in soil / water / sewage. (1)• Micro-organisms break down / degrade the polymer. (1)• The more micro-organisms the faster the degradation. (1)• Industrial / commercial composting systems can be used. (1)• Reduced oxygen will speed up the process. (1)• Heat will speed up the process. (1)• It takes approximately 90 days for 90% of the plastic todegraded commercially / 2+ years naturally. (1)• Resulting in carbon dioxide and water / non toxic material.(1)

e.g. sun, moisture and oxygen, therefore it reduces the amount of waste that is filled in landfill. Reduction of time in landfill and the associated harmful effects• Biodegradable / rots quickly (1) so takes up less space in landfill /reduces long term unsightly litter / releases nutrients (1)• Will not consume finite sources of oil (1) extending supply (1)• Sustainable polymer (1) as it can be re-grown.• Reduced carbon emissions (1) as carbon is absorbed during growthcycle / as there is no need to incinerate it/ reduces global warming(1)• Made from an organic base / sugar & carbohydrates (1) so notharmful when rots / non toxic (1)

when mixed and reduces their values

Degradation of some plastics still contributes to global warming through the release of carbon dioxide as a main end product

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

CAM involving CNC equipment It’s an ideal cell layout as it manufactures a narrow range of very similar products and is self-contained with all necessary equipment and resources

Greater control of the production process enabling fully automated productionSafer working environments due to removal of risks to humans• Repetitive accuracy (1)• The ability to save and reload the CAD drawings to suitdemand (1)• The ability to machine extremelyintricate/complex/accurate/quality/precise shapes (1)• The speed of production (1)• Reduced labour cost in terms of machine mindersrather than skilled machinists (1)• Increased safety (1)• Continuous production/24-7 (1)• Reduced human error/less waste (1) • CNC machines are more expensive to buy (1) whencompared to manually operated machines/increasescompanies costs. (1)• Once set up CNC machines only need minders (1)which will lead to loss of skills/CNC machine operatoronly needs basic training to supervise severalmachines. (1)• Highly skilled workers required (1) to setup/maintain/ repair CNC machines. (1)

Extremely high set up costs as expensive machinery and installation are requiredWorker morale may be affected due to “machine minding” job roles• Integrates all aspects of a manufacturing system (1)• Mention of various areas such asdesign/analysis/planning/flexiblemanufacturing/distribution/ordering/JIT. (1)• Electronically organised into a computer integratedsystem. (1)• Saves time/money in production/cost effective. (1)• Gives direct control/monitoring of all process operations.(1)• Allows information/data in the system to be readilyshared by all departments/fast/rapid communication. (1)• Helps maintain consistent productquality/precision/accuracy because of the integration/nohuman error. (1)• Enables products to be produced in the most efficienttime period/can improve productivity. (1)• Brings product to market

Negative effect on employment as CAM requires less human involvement in its operation

• Poor job satisfaction/lower productivity (1)employees’ loose interest/mindless tasks/littlestimulation. (1)• Does not recognise errors/cannot think (1) couldresult in faulty products. (1)• CAM lacks flexibility (1) that manually operatedmachines have. (1)• Fewer manual/low skilled workers/needed to runmachines (1) leading to higher unemployment/lowerlabour costs (1)• Computer systems can become corrupted (1) leadingto lost work. (1)

quicker/reduces lead times. (1)• Allows quick response to changes/demand. (1)• Benefits from being an automated system. (1)

(CAQ) Computer aided quality in flexible manufacturing cells

This can be achieved within a manufacturing cell using a coordinate measuring machine.

• Allows for 100% sampling. (1)• Can give immediate feedback on errors. (1)• More efficient. (1)• The computer in the system can make adjustments to correcterrors. (1)• Can be a closed loop feedback system. (1)• Far quicker than humans. (1)• Removes human error. (1)• Can carry out checks that humans cannot do. ( egdensitometer) (1)• Can check quality without having rest breaks. (1)• Check several aspects simultaneously. (1)

automated storage and retrieval systems(ASRS)

An automatic storage and retrieval system is an automated robotic system for sorting, storing and retrieving items in a warehouse. Within CIM the transportation of materials and components to the required points is controlled by computer. All stock of materials and components are stored in racking systems. The ASRS system selects the correct component from the race, retrieves it by means of a crane and places it on a conveyor or onto an automatic guided vehicle (AGV) for transportation

AdvantagesGood efficiency of storage and retrieval.• Parts / materials are retrieved for the precise time needed sono delays ie. quicker. (1)• Can run 24/7 (1)• Reduced employment costs. (1)• Reduced error in losing / damaging components / selectingwrong parts. (1)• Improved safety regarding storage at height (1)

Disadvantages• High set-up costs / repair costs. (1)• All parts / materials need a uniform system of unitising /palletising. (1)• Lack of flexibility. (1)• Faulty damaged components may go undetected. (1)• Puts people out of work (1)

Reduces labour cost and employees technical skills

automatic guided vehicles. (AGV’s) To move materials / tooling / parts (1)

AGV is a material handling device that is used to move parts between machines or work centres.

• Route determined/guided by computers/follows aprogrammed route. (1)• Lasers/sensors/GPS/transponders/radio waves pickup the route. (1)

• Floor mounted reflective strip / tape / line guided. (1)• Floor embedded radio wire / magnetic strip. (1)• Laser guided. (1)• Gyroscopic guided. (1)• GPS guided (1)

Independently powered vehicles that are usually guided by radio frequency

• Information fed back to the microprocessors. (1)• Microprocessors on vehicle follow the laser route. (1)• Continual adjustments made by the microprocessors.(1)• Lay out pre determined route. (1)Or• Route determined/guided by computers/follows aprogrammed route. (1)• Magnetic navigation system. (1)• Picks up references with sensors in the floor. (1)• Based on magnetic tape/magnetic spots/inductionwire. (1)• Buried in the floor. (1)

PROCESS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENTRobotics and Artificial Intelligence (AI) p105-107RM p107-109GRrobots on fully automated production

Automation is the use of computer systems control industrial machinery and processes.• Spot weld / weld (1)• Spray paint (1)• Pick & Place / Moving components around factory (1)• Pop rivet (1)• Insert screws (1)• Checking for quality (1)• Applying adhesive (1)• Assembly (1) (Do not accept fixing things)• Routing (1)• Laser cutting (1)• Drilling (1)• Milling (1)

Ideal for repetitive, monotonous, mundane tasks requiring extreme precision.Able to extremely heavy loads.Do not tire suffer from lack of concentration and stress during repetitive tasks over long periods.• Speed of movement (1) increases production capacity. (1)• Accuracy of positioning / movement / measurement (1) meansincreased levels of complexity can be gained (1)• Reliability / repetitive accuracy / less human error (1) leads tofewer rejects / higher quality components.(1)• Flexibility / easily re-programmed (1) means range of productscan be manufactured / production easily updated.• Reduced labour requirements (1) leads to wage / cost savings.• They can work 24/7 without breaks / shifts / etc. (1) givingincreased productivity / so production is more reliable. (1)• Can remove employees from hazardous environments (1)making manufacturing safer reducing risk of injury. (1)

Maintenance issues as different brands of robots use different control systems, so maintenance crews need different specialist training. Robots do not have the ability to learn and make decisions when the required data does not exist. Robots do not have as impressive array sensors as humans (touch, vision, hearing, pattern recognition).• High initial costs to purchase. (1)• High initial costs to setup the manufacturing line.(1)• Can be expensive to repair if they breakdown/production is lost ifthere is a breakdown. (1)• Need highly skilled workers to maintain them. (1)• Few workers needed to look after them hence higher unemployment.(1)• Not as flexible/able to improvise like humans/cannot learn on the job.(1)• Malfunction/cannot make decisions/correct errors/big effect onproduction. (1)• Cannot think for itself/cannot sense dangers. (1)

Human operators have to be excluded from robot working areas due to safety issues.

Development of artificial intelligence (AI) for industrial

• The development of computers systems / robots. With enhanced sensory feedback

No need to deal with human labour as much.

Expensive

applications systems. (1)• Do tasks like humans. (1)• Learns / adapts without human input. (1)• Make decisions / act / think for themselves. (1)• Expert / autonomous systems mentioned. (1)(

One that exhibits human intelligence and behaviour and can demonstrate the ability to learn and adapt through experience.

Things can be done quicker.

• Autonomous manufacturing systems (1) which can respond toproblems / make adjustments to allow production to continue. (1)(not just ‘check’ production)

artificial intelligence (AI) used to support product design and manufacture.

• Simulations (1) allow extensive testing / evaluation ofproducts without the need for a prototype. (1)• Knowledge based / expert systems / co-worker system (1)apply reasoning skills / suggest modifications to productsbeing designed. (1)• Voice recognition systems (1) help improve communicationbetween designer and computer system.(1)

Lean Manufacturing using JIT JIT means “just in time” this type of manufacturing process ensures that there are no warehouses full of materials waiting to be used. The materials arrive just when they are needed.

JIT is to ensure that there is minimum waste happening during production and to only produce products when they are needed

JIT are the materials, components and product all arrive at the right time, at the right place in the exact amountTherefore this reduces waste and overstocking as new stock is only ordered when it is needed this saves warehouse space and storage cost. • No wasted storage (1) as materials / products are delivered /dispatched just when needed. (1)• No wasted time (1) as production delays are eliminated. (1)• No wasted energy (1) movement of materials is minimized.(1)• No wasted materials / components / products (1) as onlyamount needed are ordered /products are made to order. (1)• Minimized faulty products (1) as rigorous quality assurancesystems are established. (1)• No wasted labour (1) as work tasks are carefully planned/systems automated where possible / so minimizing labourcosts.(1)• No wasted equipment (1) as machinery used efficiently / doesnot stand idle. (1)

JIT are if the manufacturer is inaccurate in their prediction for example a rise in demand for a product then stock then becomes limited an there will be little opportunity to re supply • Set up costs are high (1)• Staff training/retraining has a cost implication (1)• The system is dependent on efficient material delivery(1)• Increases unemployment (1)

Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS)

FMS is one where several machines are linked together by material handling system such as a computer control computer controlled robot or conveyor system. FMS brings together new manufacturing technologies such as CNC or robotics to form an integrated system.

Increased productivity due to automationsLower labour cost due to automationIt has high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. Shorter lead times (the time from design to market) for new products

A Flexible Manufacturing System is one that can be changed or adapted rapidly to manufacture different products or components at different volumes of production. Flexible manufacturing systems are usually seen at their most efficient when manufacturing components rather than finished products.

• Production can be quickly altered (1) allowing fast response tomarket changes / shorter lead times / increased market share. (1)• Smaller batches of products can be manufactured whenneeded (1) reducing capital tied up in unsold stock. (1)• Products can be customized for individual consumers (1)increasing the appeal / sales / profits from the product. (1)• Less reject components (1) as FMS systems are able to checkthe quality of their own work. (1)• Large capital investment needed for initial set up (1) whichwould be off-set against minimal alteration costs whenproduction is changed. (1)• Production rate could reduce on large batches (1) due to CNCmachines being slower than automated machinery. (1)• Staff would need retraining / new staff recruited (1) asdifferent skills are needed to operate the new equipment. (1)• Consideration of the downtime needed to install new systemsis needed (1) so that it is minimized / does not lead tofinancial problems.(1)

PROCESS

CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES IMPACT ON EMPLOYMENT

Computer integrated manufacture (CIM) p98-104RM p102-107GR

Stage One - Computer Aided Design. A product is designed totally on computer. When complete it is tested or its functions simulated on screen before even a prototype is made. If a circuit is involved it is designed by using software and tested on screen. Improvements / alterations are made to the design using the same CAD software.

Stage Two - Prototype Manufacture. Prototypes are manufactured on machines such as 3D printers which produce an accurate 3D model. CNC routers and laser cutters may also be used to produce a realistic model. Sometimes working models are manufactured.

Stage Three - The computer system controlling the plant works out the most efficient method of manufacture. It calculates costs, production methods, numbers to be manufactured, storage and distribution.

Stage Four - The computer system orders the necessary materials to manufacture

• Reduced need for manual skills.(1)• Increased unemployment as many systems become automated.(1)• Some jobs reduced to machine minding / repetitive / boring. (1)• Improved safety levels as workers removed from hazards.(1)• Workers need CADCAM skills /able to work with computers/ hightechnology. (1)• Workers need to be re-trained frequently to keep up with newtechnology. (1)• Workers need to be good team players / have better peopleskills. (1)• Workers need to be flexible so they can fulfil a number of roles. (1)• Increased levels of numeracy and literacy are required in orderto access ICT based systems. (1)

• Reduced need for manual skills.(1)• Increased unemployment as many systems become automated.(1)• Some jobs reduced to machine minding / repetitive / boring. (1)• Improved safety levels as workers removed from hazards.(1)• Workers need CADCAM skills /able to work with computers/ hightechnology. (1)• Workers need to be re-trained frequently to keep up with newtechnology. (1)• Workers need to be good team players / have better peopleskills. (1)• Workers need to be flexible so they can fulfil a number of roles. (1)• Increased levels of numeracy and literacy are required in orderto access ICT based systems. (1)

the product. Keeping costs to a minimum. The ‘just in time’ philosophy is applied. This means that materials / components are ordered as needed. Very little is stored at the factory. Usually only enough materials are stored to keep the factory going for a small number of days. Materials are automatically reordered when required, to keep the factory working smoothly and continuously.

Stage Five - Manufacturing begins with the product being made using CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture). Computers control CNC machines such as laser cutters, CNC routers and CNC lathes.

Stage Six - Quality control is applied at every stage. The product is tested using computer control inspections. For instance, the accuracy of manufacture is tested automatically. This ensures that the product is manufactured to the correct sizes.

Stage Seven - The product is assembled by robots. This is automated (controlled) by the computer system.

Stage Eight. The product is quality checked before being stored for distribution to the customer. All storage is automated. This means that computer controlled vehicles move the finished product from the manufacturing area to storage. The computer systems keep track of every individual product. Products are bar coded which are constantly scanned and recorded by the computer system.

Stage Nine - The product is automatically moved from store to awaiting lorries / trucks for distribution to the customer.

Stage Ten - Financial accounts are updated, bills chased up and paid by the computer system.

PDM data management It’s an information system used to manage the data for a product as it passes from design to manufacture. The data includes plans, 3D models, CAD drawings, CNC programs.

Reduced time to market – as data is instantly available to all teams for review, eliminating “bottlenecks” where documents await distribution or sign offImproved productivity – as changes to the product data are tracked and managed automatically, reducing the time taken to search and retrieve documents and giving the ability to re-use design data without repeating workImproved control- du e to efficient management systems that assume everyone is working from the most current data

Replaces the need for actual workers.

(ERP) (enterprise resource planni Attempts to combine all the software and data from various departments into one systems that all can use. ERP improves the

Employees in the different departments all see the same information and can update it instantly.

ERP is extremely expensive to install and costs are incurred during the “switching over” period as a result of

Workers need to be trained over and over again about the new software.

way in which a company takes a customer order and processes it into an invoice.

Any order can be easily tracked and customers should receive delivery of their orders faster without errors

hardware and investment and staff training.

PROCESS

CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Manufacturing Systems p95-98RM p99-101GR

QRM QRM stands for Quick Response Manufacturing.It was developed to make companies more efficient and hence profitable. QRM requires manufacturers to move from traditional batch production to “flow” production. QRM has the ability to re-program manufacturing and business processes in response to market pressures.There is production flexibility and will be better equipped to meet changing demands

1. A companywide strategy (1) to cut lead times. (1)2. Aims to reduce production times for small batches (1) such aspromotional gifts. (1)3. It will increase profitability by reducing non–value–added time(1) cutting inventory and increasing return on investment. (1)4. Responds to demand / a pull system (1) not producing in advanceof an order / or forecast orders. (1)5. Successful implementation of QRM results in high quality (1) andlow cost products. (1)6. Uses JIT (1) to reduce storage space. (1)7. Increased flexibility (1) to improve responsiveness. (1)8. Finished product shipped out immediately (1) so no storageneeded / quicker to market. (1)9. Uses flow production (1) instead of batch / mass production. (1)10.KANBAN / KAIZAN / TQM / flexible manufacturing cells (1)followed by a valid / relevant point relating to QRM / CIM (1)(must not be a description of the said system.)11.Small batches often produced / cannot react to mass productionefficiently (1) large variations in demand causes problem. (1)

Less money needed to run the factory because fewer raw materials and finished goods are stockedBetter position to increase market share as quicker response time may attract new clientsIncreased turnover of stock as production systems are trigger by demand.

Increased reliance on suppliers to react to demand and quickly accommodate production schedulesPoor supple could result in a manufacture’s inability to meet customer requirementsManaging and implementing the change required can be very difficult as ARM changes the roles and responsibilities of employees• Reduction in low skilled jobs/untrained workforce. (1)• Increase in the need for skilled workforce. (1)• Need for highly computer literate workforce. (1)• Greater need for a more flexible workforce. (1)• Workforce needs to be multi skilled/multi disciplinary (1)• Effects on workforce morale. (1)

advanced manufacturing technology (AMT)

Describes the significant impact of computers on manufacturing. Computer technology has revolutionised the way that products are designed and manufactured.

At every stage of the manufacturing process, computer technology is used to ensure fast, efficient high quality production.

concurrent manufacturing Concurrent manufacturing systems aim to eliminate the need for design changes and overcome production problems and production delays.

Less mistake so designs become ‘right time first’Reduces product development times and enables earlier release of new products.Points

• Key people/teams from all departments work togetherat each stage of the design and manufacturingprocess (1) reduces product development time. (1)• By overlapping the development

expensive

• Right first time (1)• Quick to respond to demand/trends (1)• High quality product(1)• Increasing quality of products (1)• Teamwork (1)• Multi-skilled/multi-disciplined workforce (1)

Justifications• Reduces/saves money (1)• Saves time/reduces delays (1)• Customer satisfaction (1)• Flexibility (1)• No redesign necessary (1)

process (1) leadtimes are reduced. (1)• Helps overcome production delays/more efficient (1)which leads to earlier release of new products. (1)• Enables right first time design (1) eliminating need fordesign changes. (1)• Teamwork (1) leads to product qualityimprovement/changes in design. (1)• Reduces design to market time/market pull (1) by alldepartments working together. (1)• Responds to JIT (1) making more room for productionarea. (1)

The effects of technological changes on society

PROCESSCHARACTERISTICS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

THE IMPACT ON SOCIETY IN RELATION TO PRODUCTMANUFACTURE

Mass production: p110-115RM p113-117GRconsumer society including built-in obsolescence

A method of stimulating consumer demand by designing products that wears out or become outmoded after limited use

• Deliberate shortening of product life (1) by productbecoming outdated/product wears out quickly. (1)• Encouraging sales/profits/ for company (1) ascustomers have to update regularly. (1)• Helps keep the company in business (1) by needingto update /produce new products. (1)

More money made for sellers More money spent by buyers.Is not environmentally friendly.

It creates a consumer society forcing people to buy things they don’t necessarily need. Consistently updating products through new technology. Also it creates a material competition between the ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s ‘. Material processions that manufacturers produce enable society to illustrate their financial status.

Effect on Employment

multinational companies Advantages for a Country of hosting the manufacturing facilities of a multinational company:

• Increased employment opportunities. (1)• Increased training for the workers. (1)• Increased wealth / standard of living. (1)• Local infrastructure / transport /amenities are improved. (1)• Foreign currency is brought into the country increasing itsbalance of payments / widens the country’s economic base /promotes further development.(1)• Brings increased levels of technology to the country. (1)

Advantages for a multinational company of moving its manufacturing facilities to developing countries:

• Can use cheaper labour (1) cheap / readily available land(1) reducing production costs making the company morecompetitive / sell products cheaper / increase profits. (1)Note – Cheap labour & land can be awarded separately butboth have the same justification. Only award justificationonce.

• Developing countries have less stringent legislation (H&S /environmental) (1) so companies can cut corners / disposeof their waste with less expense / save on cleaning emissionscosts. (1)• Being a large employer they can gain a measure of politicalinfluence (1) and use this to ensure that regulations andlaws remain advantageous to the company. (1)

The ‘new’ industrial age of high-technology production p113-116RM p116-119GRcomputers in the development and manufacture of products

New materials such as metals alloys, polymers and composites changing the way of designing and manufacturing.

miniaturisation of products and components

In recent years products have reduced in size and multi-functional products have been made possible. E.g. mobile phones3 key development that has made it possible to miniaturise mobile phonesAdvanced integrated circuitsAdvanced battery technologyAdvanced liquid crystal displays

of smart materials and products for innovative applications.

The continued development of smart materials has seen them being applied to a whole range of innovative products and system.

Smart Glass Used to change light transmission properties of windows or skylights when a voltage is applied i.e changes opacity from transparent to translucent.

Control amount of heat passing through a window, saving energy costs.Provides shade from harmful UV rays.Provides piracy

Expensive to installRequires constant supply of electricity.Speed of controlDegree of transparency

Shape memory alloys Used in spectacle frames as the crystal structure of this advanced composite, once deformed, can regain or ‘remember’ its original shape, e.g. Memofles glasses

Superelasticity – extremely flexible so can be bent or ‘sat on’ without permanently deforming.Immediately recovers original shape.Lightweight and durable – alloy contains titanium

Not unbreakableMore expensive than similar polymer frames

Thermochomic Combined with polymers and used in ‘chameleon’ kettles, which change colour when boiling (bright pink) and return to original colour when cool (bright blue)

Immediate visual indication of temperatureSafety featureAesthetic ‘novelty’ appeal.

Limited colour rangeNot possible to engineer accurate temperature settings to colour changes.

The global marketplace:

multinational companies in developed countries manufacturing ‘

• It can provide employment and higher livingstandards (1)• It may improve the level of expertise of the local

• It can cause environmental damage –emissions/unsightly manufacturing plants (1)• Raw materials are often

workforce (1)• Increased mechanisation means a reduced need forlocal labour (1)• Jobs provided may only be low skill level (1)• Managerial roles are often only filled by employeesfrom developed countries (1)• Health and safety standards may be low indeveloping countries (1)• Wages may be low / working conditions poor (1)• Products produced may be too expensive for localconsumption (1)• Locally customs / beliefs / cultures (1)• Multinationals can set up and pull out at any timeleaving local unemployment issues (1)

exported rather than beingprocessed in developing countries (1)• The need for increased infrastructure (1)• Multinationals can set up and pull out at any timeleaving the local economy in trouble and largeredundant manufacturing plants(1)• Increase pollution due to extensive transportation ofmaterials / products (1)• Waste materials are ‘dumped’ and not recycledefficiently (1)

Miniaturisation ADVANTAGES • Portability (1)• The increased number of features it is possible toincorporate (1)• The fashion/aesthetic appeal of ‘small is beautiful’ (1)• Less energy is needed to power the product (1)• Less material is needed, reducing manufacturing costs(1)• Reduced transport costs (1)• Discreetness/secrecy (1)• Takes up lass space (1)• Less weight (1)

DISADVANTAGES • Easy to lose/misplace (1)• Less workers required due to automation (1)• More difficult to use/ergonomics (1)• Obsolescence – people buy the ‘latest’ version eventhough the old one functions perfectly well (1)• Increased precision required for manufacture (1)• Harder/unlikely to be repaired (1)

Smart Materials • Can reduce the size of a product / reduce materials costs (1)increasing its appeal. (1)• Can reduce the complexity of a product (1) enabling areduction in manufacturing costs. (1)• Can give a product improved / additional features (1)increasing its performance / competitiveness. (1)• Extend the life of a product (1) as it has fewer components tofail / reduces need to replace batteries and power sources.(1)• An identified smart material / described smart material /product containing a smart material (1) and a benefit its usebrings. (1)

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Renewable and non-renewable sources of energy p148-149RM p151-152GRwind Power of wind turns turbines, which

generate electricity.Flexibility – can be used in large-scale wind farms for national electrical grids as well as in small individual turbines for providing electricity to rural residences or grid-isolated locationsUse of wind turbines is non-polluting, environmentally friendly and sustainable – produces more than 50 times as much energy over its lifetime as is consumed by its construction and installationWind farmsAdvantages• No emissions (1)• Relatively little maintenance/running costs (1)• Often situated in remote locations (e.g. off-shore/hilltop) (1)• Low cost power (1)• Renewable source of power (1)• Don’t require infrastructure/transport to re-supply rawmaterials (e.g. fossil fuels) (1)• Micro generation possible (1)• Land around wind farms can still be used (e.g. farmed)(1)• Surplus privately generated electricity can be sold backto the national grid (1)

Can only provide a small proportion of total energy needs due to the amount of turbines needed in relation to space available for wind farms.Disadvantages• Harm the ‘natural beauty’ of an area (1)• Noise/vibration (1)• Reduction in property prices within the vicinity of awind farm (1)• Only useable when the climate is right/wind conditionscorrect (1)• High set-up costs (1)• Low energy production per unit (1)• Wind farms require a lot of space/real-estate (1)• Danger to low flying planes / wildlife (1)• Unsightly/eyesore (1)• Can only be set up in specifically windy areas (1)• Infrastructure is required to supply the energy fromthe remote location (i.e. cabling) (1)

water Running water turns turbines and generates hydroelectric power (HEP)

Fuel is not required so eliminates fuel costs and production of carbon dioxide.

Extremely expensive to construct dams and power plants

solar Hot water and /or electricity generated from solar energy via solar panels and photovoltaic cells

Huge amounts of energy available from the sun.

Relatively expensive set-up costs for domestic and commercial buildings• Weather influences output/reliability/no sun, no power. (1)• Back up system/battery needed for night time use. (1)• Output has to be converted to AC. (1)• Solar power is inefficient/low limited power source. (1)• Solar panels are expensive to produce/install. (1)• Maintenance expensive/skilled technicians needed to maintain/repair equipment. (1)• Affected by pollution making panels dirty/panels must be kept clean.(1)• Large area needed for effective energy source. (1)• Expensive when compared to other alternative energy sources. (1)• Visual eye sore/large areas, panels

needed. (1)• Positioning/orientation important/cannot be put anywhere. (1)

biomass and biofuels Plant materials are either incinerated to produce heat and electricity or biogas is produced from anaerobic digestion

Relatively inexpensive source of energyPositives• Biomass is a relatively inexpensive source of energy (1) as largeamounts of cheap fuel available from agricultural sources and land fill.(1)• Biofuels are a sustainable source of energy (1) so it reduces the needto consume other finite fuel resources. (1)• The use of biofuels is said to be carbon neutral, (1) in that duringgrowth the crop absorbs as much carbon as it emits when it is burnt asa fuel.(1)• Controlled combustion of biomass fuel in power stations significantlyreduces the levels of methane that would normally be emitted (1)which reduces carbon emissions in the carbon cycle.(1)• The use of trees as a biomass source requires significantly lessagricultural energy than the use of field crops. (1)• 2nd 3rd and 4th generation bio-crops are more efficient for fuelproduction (1) and compete much less with food crops. (1)• By products from biogas production can be sold for re-use ascomposts(1) further reducing volumes of waste / recouping costs ofproduction.(1)• Can be used as an alternative vehicle fuel. (1)• Biofuel gives increase power over comparable vehicle fuel.

Ecological damage, including deforestation and intensive farming practicesNegatives• The fuel used by agricultural machinery producing the crop / energyused in processing it, generates significant carbon emissions (1)therefore it is far from carbon neutral. (1)• Agricultural land given over to biomass crops reduces the areaavailable for growing food crops (1) which may contribute to increasedfood costs / insufficient being available in some of the parts of theworld. (1)• Biofuels are not are not as efficient as petroleum based fuels (1)therefore more are needed to carry out the same task. (1)• Limited availability of biofuels (1) due to the technology being in itsinfancy / so refuelling vehicles may be a problem. (1)• The burning of biomass still generates some carbon emissions (1)further contributing to greenhouse gasses. / So cleaner combustionmethods still need to be found. (1)• Deforestation / habitat destruction / ecological damage could happenwhen harvesting fuel (1) so sustainable land management / forests areessential. (1)• Additional water is needed for irrigation and processing of biofuels. (1)This increased demand for water can put an unsustainable burden onavailable supplies. (1)• Vehicle engines modifications needed to use fuel. (1)• Cost of biofuel is higher than comparable fuels. (1) due to expensiveprocessing procedures.(1)• Bad odours can be given off when using biomass.(1)

nuclear A controlled nuclear chain reaction creates heat, which is used to boil water, produce steam, and drive a steam turbine which in turn generates electricity.

Uses uranium, which is an abundant and widely distributed fuel.Pro• It is a clean energy source with no greenhouse gas emissions.(1)• Large amounts of energy are readily available. (1)• The power stations are

Problem of storing radioactive waste for indefinite periods, e.g. thousands of years to decay.Con• Leeks from nuclear energy / waste are extremely harmful /dangerous. (1)• It cannot easily be destroyed, but has to be securely stored formany years. (1)

relatively small compared to otherforms. (1)• They generate only small amounts of waste. (1)• Generation costs are relatively low. (1)• Reliable / consistent supply (1)

• Accidents / attacks could have devastating effects. (1)• Not in my backyard. (1)• Developmental costs / complexity are prohibitive. (1)• Can enable to the spread of nuclear weapons. (1)

fossil fuels. The burning of hydrocarbons (oil, coal and gas) to produce heat and power.

Gas-fired power stations are very efficient.• Large quantities/plentiful supply of coal readily available. (1)• Power stations can be built close to mines/used on the spot unlikewind farms. (1)• Gives nations independence from/would be self sufficient in energyproduction. (1)• Can provide a lot of energy/heat when burnt. (1)• Does not require processing once mined. (1)• Safer than nuclear. (1)• Coal can be relatively inexpensive compared to other energysources. (1)• Burning coal can produce useful by-products that can be used forother industries or products/steam can be recovered for localheating. (1)• Coal is reliable/stable source of energy/not dependent on theweather. (1)• Easy/safe to handle/safe to store. (1)• Easy to transport/infrastructure already available. (1)• Can be used to provide heat in the home. (1)

Finite resources – coal, oil and gas will run out.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES ECONOMIC RESPONSIBILITIES ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITIES

Responsibilities of developed countries p149-153RM p153-157GR

Impact of industrialisation on global warming and climate change

Climate change

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) including Kyoto protocol

UNFCCC Purpose • To reduce green house gas emissions / prevent climatechange. (1)

• The Kyoto Protocol defines / outlines / explains (1) legallybinding targets / limits on emissions. (1)• Kyoto set flexible mechanisms / made people

Developing countries are exempt from the requirements of the KyotoProtocol:-

• Because their current emissions are far

Late signing of the protocol was due to

• Only a few countries initially signed it / some countriesrefused to sign it. (1)

aware (1) toreduce atmospheric pollution CO2 emissions. (1)• Timetables set (1) for emission targets to be met. (1)• Cutting greenhouse-gas emissions (1) agreed by many countries.(1)• Different targets set (1) for different countries (1)• To reach the goals / targets markets made for (1) emissionstrading / Clean Development (CDM) /cleaner energy supplies ortechnologies / joint Implementation (1)

lower than developedcountries. (1)• A reduction in their emissions would have very little impactglobally. (1)• Restricting their emissions puts an un-necessary burden ontheir development as a country. (1)

• A small number of countries acting alone would economically disadvantage themselves. (1)• Action by a small number of countries would have minimal impacton reducing global emissions. (1)• Time needed to negotiate / recruit non signatory countries. (1)• Countries needed time to consider the implications(government / industry / costs / public support) of theagreement and develop implementation strategies beforesigning it. (1)• They waited until sufficient countries responsible for at least 55%of global emissions signed, so that a realistic difference could bemade. (1)

Reduction of a‘carbon footprint • Statement identifying reduction in CO2 emissions (1) followed by avalid way to achieve this. (1)• The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide / CO2 /greenhouse gases (1) emitted over the life cycle of a product /service. (1)• Reducing fossil fuel consumption (1) by not flying/ saving energy/Turning lights off. (1)• The amount / measure of CO2 emitted (1) from using daily itemssuch as cars, transport, food etc. (1)• Impact on the environment (1) caused by carbon emissions. (1)• Carbon emissions (1) impact on environment / way of life.(1)(2x1) (2

Installing energy saving light bulbsTurning electrical appliances off when not in use.

• Identify energy hungry manufacturing processes (1) andreplace them with ones that use less (Eg. replacing castingwith machining / welding with riveting). (1)• Reduce the number of components in the product (1) whichwould require less energy to assemble it. (1)• Ensuring that effective quality control measures are in place asearly as possible in the production process (1) to reduceenergy wasted in manufacturing / further processing of substandard components. (1)• Ensure production is set up in a manner that requires minimalmaterial movement around the factory (1) as less energywould be needed to run transportation equipment. (1)• Ensure machines run efficiently / do not waste energy (1) byhaving an effective maintenance programme / upgrading tomore efficient machines/ avoid continual starting and stoppingof machines. (1)

Ride a bike instead of driving.carbon dioxide emissions and carbon offsetting

• Investing in developing clean technologies / carbon reducingprogrammes (1) in order to counteract/reduce your emissions.(1)

Non fosil fuel Obligation (NFFO) in the Uk

• To help develop/encourage renewable energy projects. (1)• Provides financial support to renewable energy projects. (1)

• Government orders involvement to encourage renewable sources.(1)• Electricity distribution companies must buy electricity fromrenewable sources. (1)• Aim to reduce dependence on fossil fuels/increase use of renewablesources. (1)• It is to help the development of renewable energy projects. (1)

timber production and sustainable forest management

• Creates micro-climate changes/change of climate/globalwarming.(1)• Loss of: - biodiversity/eco systems/wildlife/extinction of species/habitat. (1)• Food chain reduced/affected for wildlife. (1)• Deforestation affects the carbon cycle/more CO2 in atmosphere. (1)• Trees absorb carbon dioxide from/release oxygen into theatmosphere. (1)• When trees are burnt carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.(1)• Carbon sinks created. (1)• Increase in the greenhouse affect/increase greenhouse gasses. (1)• Trees draw water through their roots & then release it into theatmosphere. (1)• Fewer trees means less water is released causing a drier climate.(1)• Without the tree roots soil is washed away/eroded/landslides. (1)• Loss of nutrients in the soil. (1)• Water courses silt up/rivers flooding. (1)• Rising sea levels. (1)• Use of heavy machinery/cutting equipment/logging industry causes

Ergonomics • The relationship / link between the product /environment andthe user, (1) making the product easy to use (1) a comfortablesize (1) safe. (1)

• It is the use of anthropometric data/human measurement to aid the design process (1)• It is the science of designing products for humanuse/interaction (1)• Its application makes the products easier to use (1)• When applied to the workplace it can improve productivity (1)• Reduce RSI (1)• Designers generally design for 5th to 95thpercentile/majority of the public

• People come in all shapes and sizes. (1)• Ergonomics takes into account people’s wide range of sizes / takes account of human measurements. (1)

Example of Ergonomic Keyboard Advantages

• The keys/features are positioned for maximum comfort(1) therefore the keyboard can be used forlonger/reducing repetitive strain injury (1)• The keyboard is laid out so minimum movement isrequired (1) therefore making it more efficient (timewise)to use (1)• The styling of the keyboard isnew/radical/fun/interesting (1) often attractingcustomers to things which are new/different from the‘norm’ (1)

Example of Ergonomic Keyboard Disadvantages

• The layout of the keyboard is different to the moretraditional one (1) therefore requiring a degree ofretraining/practice/time to get used to/wasted time (1)• The ergonomic keyboard will be made in smallerquantities (1) therefore increasing the relative cost (1)• People are often wary of change (1) therefore makingit more difficult (at least initially) to sell (1)• The aesthetics of the keyboard aredifferent/unusual/unfamiliar (1) therefore may putpeople off (1)

• Designers make products usable for the majority of people. (1)• Ergonomic design makes the product safer / comfortable to use. (1)• Ignoring ergonomic design can affect users’ health. (1)• Poor ergonomic design can affect productivity / affect efficiency. (1)• Ergonomic design can affect the sales / success of products. (1)• Fit for purpose / interacts with the customer. (1)• Product is made user friendly / easy to use. (1)

• The keyboard is larger (1) therefore requires morespace/desk space (1)• More material is used (1) therefore increased cost (1)• Not possible/easy for one-handed use (1) thereforelass suitable for disabled people/use with a mouse (1)

AnthropometricsThe measurement of human sizes.

• An appropriate percentile range would be considered (ie. 5thto 95th) / maximum- minimum sizes. (1)• It is not economic to include people outside the identifiedpercentile range as there will be very few of them. (1)

• The target population for the product identified. (1)• Specific data acquired/ measurements taken. (1)• Data would provide distribution curve / sketch of distributioncurve. (1)• Products will be designed to fit / correct measurements used. (1)• Some products will be designed for the average person. (1)• Some products will be designed with adjustment incorporated.(1)• Some products will be designed in a range of sizes. (1)

LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) • Reduce the volume / range of materials /processes required(1) enabling materials costs to reduce. (1)• Reduce the amount of energy required to design / manufacture/ distribute the product (1) helping the company meetemissions targets / reduce energy costs. (1)• Promote the product /company as being environmentallyfriendly (1) so increasing its appeal / sales to conscientiousconsumers.(1)• Setup production nearer to suppliers / markets (1) reducingtransportation costs. (1)• Establish a life length for the product (1) so that they knowwhen to launch a new product / establish a warrantylength.(1)

6 rs Reuse Positives• Reconditioned products appeal

Negatives• Workable collection systems need to be

more to environmentallyaware consumers. (1)• Fewer products will be discarded to landfill /reduced pollution. (1)• Manufacturer has reduced need for raw materials / productionsystems / energy. (1)

established in orderto recover the used products. (1)• A system to refill / reprocess the product needs setting up.(1)• Systems for quality checking the reprocessed products needto be established. (1)• Consumers expect a lower price on a reconditioned product. (1)• Less new products will be sold. (1)• Often costs more to re-process than manufacture new. (1)• Products designed to be re-used need to be more robust addingto production costs / some products are not robust enough to bere-used (1)

Recycle • Reduces the demand on finite / limited resources. (1)• Use of recycled materials requires less energy / generates lessemissions compared to when raw materials are extracted /processed (1)• Less waste needs to be disposed of in landfill. (1)• Reduces the need to incinerate waste. (1)• Reduction in scaring landscape / affecting wildlife due toreduced resource extraction.

Paper as Example• Recycled paper does not have the quality (1) does not look asgood / perform at the same level as virgin paper. (1)• Takes more energy to produce recycled products (1) than it doesto dispose of them in traditional landfill methods. (1)• Curb side collection of recyclables done by a second waste truck(1) plus the truck that picks up the regular waste. (1)• Recycling may create jobs, (1) but are often jobs with low wagesand working conditions. (1)• Costs more money to recycle waste (1) than to dispose of inlandfill (1)• Not all types of paper can be recycled (1) such as laminatedpaper / glossy finish. (1)• Virgin pulp added (1) as cellulose / fibres become weaker /contaminated. (1)• The more paper gets recycled / can only be recycled a limitednumber of times (1) the lower the quality. (1)• Chemicals used to bleach / breakdown paper (1) causingpollution / environmental issues. (1) (This must refer back tochemical usage, not energy consumption/ greenhouse gases.)

Repair Positives points that increase profits.• Product has an increased appeal and therefore sales due tohaving an extended life time. (1)• Increased sales of spares / revenue from repair service. (1)• Reputation of business improves as it is seen as a responsible

Negatives points that reduce profits.• Sell fewer new products / stifles upgrading products. (1)• Increased demand on after sales support team. (1)• Product will need re-designing to allow for easilyinterchangeable parts. (1)• Stocks of spare parts need to be manufactured and kept, tyingup capital / requiring storage facilities. (1)

manufacturer. (1)• It is not economically viable to repair some products, resultingin replacement sales. Eg. biros, DVD’s, (1)

• Repairing products can be very time consuming making itexpensive. (1)

Digital special effects Blue or Green Screen Graphic Products

• Process is known as compositing. (1)• Background filmed or created on computer / background platecreated. (1)• Actor / model filmed against blue / green background. (1)• This film is passed through a red filter to make backgroundappear black. (1)• Silhouettes created of actor / model from blue / green screenfootage. (1)• One is black on white background; the other is white on blackbackground. (1)• There are now four pieces of film. (1)• The pieces of film are layered to make a composite. (1)• Two matte screens created. (1)• Matte screen removes foreground object. (1)• Computer removes blue / green background and replaces withrealistic background. (1)• Computer imposes CGI. (1)• Black silhouette created (1) for actor to be placed in. (1)

Rapid Prototyping Layering of a material on top of one another using CAM to create a 3D prototype

• The need for less skilled workers (cost implication)(1)• Reduced waste (1)• More accurate models (1)• Speed of modeling is increased (1)• Ability to accurately repeat the process (1)• Link between CAD and CAM is easy / quick (1)

Laser object modelling (LOM)• Design created using CAD. (1)• Information sent /encoded to machine. (1)• The object is built up of layers. (1)• Layers no more than 0.75mm. (1)• Can be copied in schools. (1)• layers of paper cut out. (1)• Using a vinyl cutter/laser cutter. (1)• Each layer attached to previous layer. (1)

• Layers of glue-backed paper form the model. • Low cost: Raw material is readily available. • Large parts: Because there is no chemical reaction involved, parts can be made quite large. • Accuracy in z is less than that for SLA and SLS®. No milling step. • Outside of model, cross-hatching removes material

Stereo lithography• Design created using CAD. (1)• Information sent/encoded to machine. (1)• Lasers used. (1)• Built up in layers. (1)• Liquid polymers/starch/resin/plastic granules. (1).• Material is set/hardened/cured. (1)• Where beams intersect. (1)• Lowered after each pass. (1)• Arm moves across top surface after each layer to ensure top surfaceis flat. (1)

http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1647

Solid ground curing• Design created using CAD. (1)• Information sent/encoded to machine. (1)• A vat moves horizontally. (1)• Bed lowered after each pass. (1).• A uv lamp (mercury light) instead of a laser, is used. (1)• This floods the chamber. (1)• Solidify the entire layer at once. (1)http://www.efunda.com/processes/rapid_prototyping/sgc.cfm

Selective laser sintering (sls)• Design created using CAD. (1)• Information sent/encoded to machine. (1)• Powders of different materials/metal/ceramic powders/polymers areused. (1)• The laser hits on selected areas. (1)• Laser fuses powders/Sintering. (1)• Making the particles melt and solidify. (1)• Powder bed lowered by one layer thickness after each pass. (1)http://www.efunda.com/processes/rapid_prototyping/sgc.cfm

• Models should be sealed in order to prohibit moisture. • Before sealing, models have a wood-like texture. • Not as prevalent as SLA and SLS®.http://www.efunda.com/processes/rapid_prototyping/lom.cfm

Disadvantages• Producing good bonds between layers• Poor surface finish • Difficulty in producing hollow parts.

Lamination Lamination is the technique of manufacturing a material in multiple layers, so that the composite material achieves improved strength, stability, appearance or other properties from the use of differing materials. A laminate is usually permanently assembled by heat, pressure, welding, or adhesives.

Plywood Blockboard and Laminboard Formica

Advantages• strong in all directions•Can be shaped into complex curvesLaminated board uses the whole of the tree• The whole sheet can be used there is little waste• Can be used in flat pack furniture and then veneered to give a good finish

Disadvantages•surface is not good is often rough and might not take paint or varnish • Layers are visible at edges• Knots can sometimes be seen•if becomes wet then can come apart

MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Of adding the following additives

to polymers:

plasticisers plasticisers are additives that increase the plasticity or fluidity of a material

Plasticisers are chemical substances essential to soften PVC, also known as vinyl, and make flexible and durable goods such as floors, cables and wall coverings. Phthalates, the most common type of general plasticisers, are divided into two distinct groups with very different applications and classification

Plasticizers make it possible to achieve improved compound processing characteristics, while also providing flexibility in the end-use product.

Sensitive to UV and oxidative degradation.Limited thermal capability.

Fillers Fillers are defined as materials that are added to a polymer formulation to lower the compound cost or to improve properties

For sports shoesFor brake pads, railway padsFor tiresFor Hose

Polymer fillers are composed of fine, inert, strong, thick walled spherical ceramic particles with exceptional hardness & thermal stability. The spherical shape

expensive

For SBS Thermoplastic RubberFor PVC Elastomer manufacturersFor Soft TPU AlloysFor Over Moulding TPEFor soft PVC

gives the highest packing density with improved flow characteristics.

Fibers Fiber is a class of materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.

Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials

Network of interwoven fibres / matting (1) gives increasedstrength / toughness / flexibility (1) resulting in the polymerbeing able to resist greater forces / shock loads/ improvestrength to weight ratio. (1)

They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding tissues together.Excellent weight to strength ratioResistant to corrosionWater resistant

Take time to be producedExpensive materialSpecialised manufacturing process High-quality mould needed Can delaminate in water.High wastage if moulding

stabilisers Stabilizers for polymers are what is used to prevent the various effects

are used directly or by combinations to such as oxidation, chain scission and uncontrolled recombinations and cross-linking reactions that are caused by photo-oxidation of polymers

Increased resistance to UV light / sunlight (1) does not fade /yellow or become brittle / increased life of product. (1)Note – do not accept ‘light’ on its own.• Increased resistance to heat (1) so does not degrade underinjection moulding.• Increased resistance to biological attack (1) so will not gomouldy / have fungal growths

Highly effective antioxidan Ultra Violet radiation is destructive

foamants • Cause polymer to form into a cellular structure / fill with bubbles/ increasing its volume

(1) improving the polymers volume toweight ratio / buoyancy / elasticity / flexibility / toughness /insulation properties. (1)

PROCESS

CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

lamination A layered structure Polyproylene (PP) film is glued to the paper a it is fed through a heating wedge under high pressure.

Low costWide range of usesGood gloss and strengthThey have increased stability against warping.

They have equal strength in all directions unlike natural timbers.

Can only be used on flat surfaces