Applied PsychologyComponent 3: Child Psychology

What is Child Psychology?

Child Psychology looks at the development of thinking and behaviour. Specifically, in children and young people. Researchers in this area may study individual children’s behaviour, environmental factors and the impact both of these have on individual’s development.

In this component, we will look at six topics:

TOPIC ONE: Intelligence TOPIC TWO: Pre-adult brain

TOPIC THREE: Perceptual development

TOPIC FOUR: Cognitive development and education

TOPIC FIVE: Development of attachment

TOPIC SIX: Impact of advertising on children

TOPIC ONE: Intelligence

Background: What Psychologists mean by intelligence and what biological factors could affect intelligence

Part one of background: What is intelligence?

Intelligence is a psychological construct with the implied meaning of the ability to acquire information, think and reason. However, as intelligence can refer to things such as creative skills, logical reasoning, originality or the ability to make critical judgement, there lacks a universal definition.

Intelligence is represented by whatever particular intelligence tests are actually testing (Boring, 1923). For instance, most modern IQ tests include logical reasoning exercises. An individual who scores highly on this type of test is considered intelligent; but only if you define being intelligent as being highly skilled at solving analogies!

Think back to core studies… what does Gould say about the use of IQ tests?

Stratum 1

Stratum 2

Stratum 3

Theory 1: Spearman (1927)

In the early 20th century, Spearman studied the relationships between cognitive factors in school children. He tested large numbers of school children, correlated all of their scores and subjected them to a statistical technique known as data analysis. Spearman proposed that intelligence could be understood by one single factor; the ‘g’ factor (general intelligence). The ‘g’ factor is an innate ability. He suggests that the ‘g’ factor is responsible for success across a range of mental tasks for each individual and is likely to account for 50% of variance across mental tasks. In an example: you are good at maths and your friend is not. Spearman would suggest half of the variance of your skills (and your friends lack of skills) could be explained by the ‘g’ factor. The remainder would be attributed to other influences such as your desire to get a top grade or because you have a more supportive teacher.

Theory 2: Carroll (1993)

The single-factor theory (above) was further developed into a model known as the three-stratum model. The model consists of a three-level hierarchy of intelligence: Stratum 1 included around 70 narrow abilities. Stratum 2 gathered these into several broad ability factors (which were over arched by the single ‘g’ factor).

The man who created Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient

Part two of background: What biological factors can affect intelligence

ONE: Gender differences

The relationship between gender and intelligence has been investigated by many researchers. In one major review of a range of intelligence measures, Halpern (1997) found evidence to indicate particular differences in cognitive abilities between males and females. For instance, women obtained higher than average scores in tests that involve tasks requiring verbal fluency and areas of knowledge such as foreign language. By contrast, he established men performed better in tasks that involve mental rotation and scientific reasoning.

Using page 60 in pink butterfly textbook…

Explain the biological explanation Haier et al. (2005) suggests for these differences.

What does Van Goozen et al. (1995) suggest?

TWO: Genetic factors

Particular genes and gene combinations are passed from parent to offspring. This allows children to inherit characteristics or traits from their parents. Researchers are interested in understanding the ‘heritability’ of traits such as intelligence. This means, they want to know the extent to which different genes (nature) and differences in environmental factors (nurture) contribute to observed variations in intelligence.

The use of twin or adoptive study methods allow researchers to see the extent to which heredity influences cognitive abilities. Using page 61-62 in the pink butterfly textbook, explain what the following studies done and what they found.

Scarr & Weinberg (1978)

Plomin & Defries (1998)

Scarr (1997) indicates that even when raised apart, identical twins shared higher concordance rates (ie. they had more similar results) than non-identical twins who were reared together. This emphasises the power of genetics (nature) over environmental factors (nurture).

Desrivieres et al. (2014)

Issues with using twin studies is…

The interaction between the environment and genes is not considered; failing to consider certain environments may ‘activate’ a particular gene

Twin studies ignore that parents pass on not only genetics but environment too. For example; two healthy fit adults play lots of sports and eat a healthy diet. They have children who are genetically predisposed towards good health, however due to lifestyle, it is difficult to establish contribution of nature or nurture.

Finally, assortative mating. This means…

THREE: Nutrition and pregnancy Schoenthaler (1991) found that children who lacked nutritious diet in the first place were able to improve their IQ scores by taking daily vitamin and mineral supplements. However, these children only improved in non-verbal tests, and did not improve in verbal tests.

Goldschmidt (2008) found that heavy cannabis use (one or more cigarettes a day) during the first 3 months of pregnancy was linked to lower verbal reasoning when the child was measured at 6 years old. Heavy use during the second 3 months had effects on memory skills, and heavy use in the last 3 months was associated with low scores on IQ tests.

Glover (2009) studied 250 women during pregnancy and got them to complete anxiety questionnaires and they took blood samples to measure cortisol (stress hormone). The children exposed to high levels of cortisol tended to have lower IQ, especially on verbal and linguistic tests.

Answer the following exam question:Assess the role of biological factors in intelligence [15 marks]

Research: Van Leeuwen et al (2008) A twin-family study of general IQ

Before we get started, you must be clear on the following key terms:

Genetic transmission: transfer of genetic information from genes to another generation.

Cultural transmission: is the way a group of people within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information.

Assortative mating: individuals with similar genes or observable characteristics mate with one another more frequently than those who do not

Gene–environment (GE) interaction: the theory that certain environments ‘activate’ a particular gene

Gene-environment (GE) correlation: parents transmit their genes and their environment to their children. For example, parents may be predisposed to good health and fitness, but also share this lifestyle to their children. Therefore, it makes it difficult to establish the contribution of nature or nurture.

Heritability: the extent to a parents genes are responsible for a phenotype

Phenotypic assortment: assortative mating occurs because individuals choose one another because they have similar intelligence levels.

Social homogamy: people with similar intelligence levels are clustered together in the same environment they are more likely to end up having children together.

Aim

1. The researchers wanted to separate shared genetic from shared environmental effects on intelligence. (They wanted to find out; is intelligence nature or nurture). They aimed to measure the relative influence of assortative mating, cultural transmission, and GE interaction and GE correlation (see key terms above).

2. The researchers also wanted to investigate why spouses have similar intelligences scores to one and other

Method

The sample were drawn from…

Number of participants…

Breakdown of participants…

Mean age…

The following factors were included…

Complete the grid based on the sample used…

Twin type Monozygotic (identical) Dizygotic (non-identical)

MaleFemaleOpposite sex

Design and procedure

Results

Conclusions

1. The main influence on IQ level is genetic factors. However, genes do interact with environmental factors to influence intelligence in significant ways.

2. Cultural transmission does not have a significant influence on variance in IQ.

3. Phenotypic assortment better explains spousal resemblance than social homogamy.

Answer the following exam question:Explain how the research by Van Leeuwen et al. (2008) could be used to understand similarities and differences in the intelligence of twins [10]

Application: At least one method of assessing intelligence

In this topic, we have seen a mixture of factors determine the intelligence of a given individual. As previously discussed, intelligence is represented by whatever particular intelligence tests are actually testing. In this section, we will consider one commonly used, modern IQ test. We will also look at how effective the test is at assessing intelligence.Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM)What is it?This IQ test is one of the most popular non-verbal tests of intelligence in current use. In 1936, John Raven introduced the test, which he claims would be easier to administer and interpret, compared to other existing IQ tests which were very long and difficult to deliver. The test measures ‘fluid intelligence’. Fluid intelligence is the ability to think and reason. The test requires the participant to work out an answer based on only the information given. The test presents an incomplete, novel pictorial stimuli which those completing the test have to make meaningful. This means, participants have to select the missing ‘piece’ of the ‘puzzle’ to complete the pattern.

Nowadays, the test comes in three different versions – two of which were used in the key study by van Leeuwen et al. (2008). What are the three versions? (Page 66)Version 1:

Version 2:

Version 3:

What is the application of the test?Using page 66 of the pink butterfly textbook, answer the following…

1. Who is the test best suited to?

2. Where are the RPM used nowadays?

3. What does this allow for?

How does RPM compare to ‘the Flynn effect’‘The Flynn effect’ is a frequently observed trend in IQ scores. James Flynn compared data from 14 nations, which revealed an overall increase in IQ scores. He found from 1952 to 1982 the mean IQ score increased from 100 to 121. One explanation for the intergenerational increase in IQ scores is the improved access to education and literacy rates across the later half of the 20th century. However, Flynn indicated the largest increase in IQ scores occurred on culturally-reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence (RPM). Because these tests are based on individuals ability to think and reason (not knowledge), improved access to education and literacy cannot be used to explain this increase. Instead, Flynn suggests an increase in problem solving abilities has sparked the increase in IQ scores. He concluded that IQ tests (such as RPM) do not offer a direct measure of the ‘g’ factor (general intelligence). This would explain why, even though the tests give an indication of intelligence, they do not produce stable results across generations.If schools placed greater emphasis on teaching patterns and mental rotation of shapes this would develop the skills in all children. The most intelligent children would be more likely to develop the skills at a more advanced level as it is linked with intelligence. Hence the scores on the tests involving mental rotation would improve overtime as a result of educational focus, whilst still giving an indication of who the brightest children are. Flynn noted the problem with IQ tests is not that they fail to directly measure intelligence itself, but that they correlate too weakly with intelligence to offer a convincing measure of IQ.

Answer the following exam question:

Thelma is worried about her son. He seems very bright in some ways; he is generally making excellent progress at school. However, in three subjects his report was terrible and Thelma is wondering whether an intelligence test would help her to understand why. Discuss how an intelligence test might be conducted and what the results might, or might not, tell Thelma about her son. [10]

EvaluationHow is the topic socially sensitive?

What methodological issues exist with regards to the van Leeuwen et al. (2008) study?

Debates - How does the topic link to the following debates?Usefulness of research

Nature vs nurture

Freewill vs determinism

Reductionism vs holism

Individual vs situational explanation

Psychology as a science

Quick question(s)

In childhood, where do synaptic connections occur in the brain?

What do these connections signal the development of?

What is synaptic pruning?

What attributes are the pre-frontal cortex associated with?

TOPIC TWO: Pre-adult brainBackground: Brain development and the impact of this on risk taking behaviour

The human brain grows at an amazing rate. Much of this development occurs in the first three months of life, during which time a new-borns brain grows at an average rate of 1% per day! It was once believed that virtually all important brain changes had occurred by the time a child reached the age of 3. However, thanks to modern neuroimaging techniques (MRI scanning), we now know that significant changes to the brain continue right through childhood, adolescence and into adulthood. Part one of background: Brain developmentEarly brain developmentAt the time of birth, much of the spinal cord and brain stem are well developed. However, upper regions such as the limbic system and cerebral cortex are fairly immature. Within the first few years, a number of synaptic connections are made in the cerebral cortex, signalling the development of conscious actions, memories, thoughts and emotions. Adolescent brain developmentA dramatic change in synaptic production occurs in adolescence. Grey matter (which contains synaptic connections) reaches peak volume and begins to decrease in density across several cortical regions. This process is called ‘synaptic prunning’. This is where the connections which are not used enough are eliminated. In effect, this allows the brain to become more efficient in its use of energy by removing weaker, less essential synaptic connections in favour of strengthening those that are required. The prefrontal cortex is one of the last areas of the brain to undergo this key process of maturation. This process continues to develop throughout adolescence as individuals gradually get better at abstract reasoning and anticipating outcomes.

Freewill vs determinism

Individual vs situational

Reductionism vs holism

Part two of background: The impact of brain development on risk takingThe hormonal changes which occur during puberty, alongside the way in which adolescents brain develops, can have a significant impact on their decision-making and behaviour. This process is combined with major environmental changes:

Moving schools/going to college or university Sitting exams Increased responsibility such as part time jobs or caring for younger

siblings Greater independence in socialising and leisure activities

In many ways, adolescents are expected to behave in a grown-up way and make responsible adult choices, yet their brains are still functioning quite differently from those of their elders.Adolescents are more prone to risk-taking and impulsivity than any other age group. Examples of this include more frequent drug use, injuries/accidents and unprotected sexual activity. One reason for this is to do with the order in which various regions of the brain mature. The limbic system (which is involved in the processing of social and emotional information) develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex. For a period it dominates the executive controls of the prefrontal cortex, making risky decisions more common and more likely to occur under higher levels of social influence. For example, this means that adolescents might make poorer, riskier decisions about getting into fights than adults would.

From the following debates, could any of these factors influence risk-taking behaviour? If so, explain how.

Nature vs Nurture

Key Research: Barkley-Levenson and Galvan (2014) Neural representation of expected value in adolescent brain

Aim: Investigate whether adolescents attach more

value to rewards than adults do Seek to identify neural development of

expected value (EV) in the brain of adolescents

Sample:Group 1:

_______ adult participants Aged between _______ and _______ Mean age of _______ Gender breakdown________

Group 2: ______ adolescent participants Aged between ______ and ______ Mean age of______ Gender breakdown________

The sampling technique used was __________________

Design and procedureWhat type of experimental method was used? Why was this used?

IV= DV=

Experimenters collected information on participants source and amount of income per month. Why was this?

Key term:

Expected value (EV) is the sum of all of the possible outcomes of a particular choice multiplied by

their probabilities.

A person uses this to judge whether the risks involved in a

certain course of action are worth taking in order to gain a reward

The gambling task Each participant was given 20 US dollars to use as ‘playing’ money

during the fMRI task. They were informed there was an opportunity to win up to $20

more, however there was a possibility they would lose it during the gambling

Participants had to decide for each trial whether they would be willing to gamble

Participants were told one of the trials they accepted would be selected and played at the end of the scan for real money

The participants were also told the amount after the gamble would be added or subtracted from their overall payment of $20.

This was done to encourage participants to risk-take as they would normally

In actuality, all participants were assigned a payment of between $5 and $10, to ensure no participants had to return money

Participants were taught how to use the computerised gambling programme prior to testing

In the task, participants were presented with a series of gambles across 144 trials.

On screen, they saw a ‘spinner’ with a 50% probability of gaining the amount shown on one side, and a 50% probability of loosing the amount shown on the other side.

The amounts were given in whole dollars ranging from losses of -$5 to -$20, and gains from +$5 to +$20.

Below is an example of the three trials from the gambling task. You should complete the diagrams using page 74 from the pink butterfly textbook.

The experimenters collected both neural and behavioural data.1. In what way was neural activation recorded?

2. Why were the researchers interested in the ventral striatum(VS)?

3. How were behavioural responses were measured?

Results:Neural activation

Behavioural differences

Conclusion

Answer the following exam question: Use the study by Barkley-Leveson and Galvan (2014) to explain how neuroscience can help us to understand differences between adolescent and adult brains [10 marks]

The researchers concluded that…

1. ___________ place greater value rewards than __________ do

2. Neural representations of values in __________ are linked to _________

Important: There is nothing defective with adolescent’s ability to reason about outcomes. But rather, adolescents chose to take more risk when the chance of reward is greater.

Application: At least one strategy to reduce the risk of taking behaviours using knowledge of brain development

The key research by Barkley-Levenson & Galvan (2014) has shown that adolescents and adults are both able to reason about risks in similar ways. As adolescents chose to take more risks, this makes them more vulnerable to harm. For many years, heightened risk-taking behaviours were thought to be due to the information adolescents use when making decisions. And so, a range of interventions were introduced to reduce risk-taking behaviour in adolescents. These were designed to alter knowledge, attitudes and beliefs. This includes; educating adolescents about the risks of substance use, reckless driving and unprotected sex. While these programmes improved knowledge about these activities, it was not effective in changing the behaviour. This may be because adolescents lack the cognitive control to resist sensation-seeking, no matter how much information they are given about the high-risk activities.Graduated driver licensing schemesWhy has this scheme been introduced? (Include statistics)

What are graduated driver licensing schemes?

Why might these be useful? (Link to brain regions)

What countries are these implemented? Give information on… The minimum age to pass test The probationary period Restrictions for the probationary period.

Country 1:

Country 2:

Country 3:

Is this scheme effective?

Evaluate the topicWhat issues are there with examining brain activity and function?

Ethics?

What issues are there with the way in which risk-taking behaviour is measured?

What methodological limitations are there with the key research?

How does the topic link to the following debates?Usefulness of research

Nature vs Nurture

Freewill vs Determinism

Psychology as a Science

Answer the following exam questions: 1. Assess the reliability of research into brain development and risk-

taking [15 marks]

2. Dr Shah’s Research team studies risky behaviour in adolescents. She has a young research student called Dan who is designing a new project. He has to choose a topic other than gambling. Choose any risk-taking behaviour other than gambling and discuss how Dan might plan and conduct a new piece of research and what he might find [10 marks]

Quick question

What is the difference between the terms ‘sensation’ and ‘perception’? You should provide an example to support your explanation.

TOPIC THREE: Perceptual developmentBackground: Perceptual development in children and how this can be studied in babies and animals

Part one of background: Perceptual development in childrenThrough the process of sensation, we experience the world; being exposed to a stimuli such as light, sound, smell, taste and touch through corresponding sensory organs. Perception is different to sensation. Perception is the process by which our minds organise, process and make sense of sensory data. Our perceptual systems keep us informed of what is happening in our environment and help us respond accordingly.

In humans, most perceptual capacities emerge during the first year of life. The development of perception is directed by an interaction between an infant’s sensory experiences and its biological programming. The rate at which perception develops is of real interest to psychologists wanting to understand the interplay between brain development, perceptual processing and healthy functioning. At birth, our auditory, olfaction, and tactile systems are already developed at the time of birth. The visual system is somewhat organised but still relatively immature and continues to develop over the first few weeks and months.In many ways, vision is the most important sense as it provides us with the most detailed information about what is happening in our environment.

Activity: You should explore the early development of vision and its effects on infant perception, by explaining each of the sensory abilities named below. (Use page 81 in the pink butterfly textbooks).

1. Acuity

2. Binocular vision

3. Colour

Outlined above are the sensory abilities. As we have already discussed, perception is more than just sensation. And so, you should explain the two key perception abilities. (Use page 82 in the pink butterfly textbook).

1. Facial recognition

2. Depth perception

Part two of background: How perceptual development can be studied in babies and animalsWhat issues are there with studying perception in infants?

Psychologists have developed two ways to investigate the development of perception in infants. These are…Habituation

Preferential looking

A number of studies into perception have involved animals. The key research in this topic uses ‘selective rearing’. This involves raising an animal from birth under controlled conditions to observe the outcome. Which core study do you know of which has used ‘selective rearing’? Explain how.

Key research: Gibson & Walk (1960) ‘The Visual Cliff’

AIM: How humans and other animals perceive height distance What stage human infants and other young animals develop the

ability to perceive height distance METHOD:Sample

There were ______ infants ranging from ___ months to ___ months. The researchers also tested unspecific numbers of young animals including ______, _____, ______, ________, _________ and ________.

Design and procedure Laboratory experiment using a novel set-up called the ‘visual cliff’ The visual cliff was specifically designed to test height distance

perception, while also avoiding the danger associated with an actual fall.

It consisted of a board laid across a large sheet of heavy glass that was supported around one foot above the floor

On one side of the board, a sheet of patterned material was placed directly underneath the glass (the ‘shallow’ side)

On the other side, a sheet of the same material was laid on the floor (the ‘cliff’ side)

Although the cliff side was solid to the floor to touch, the visually patterned material was clearly some distance lower. This created an illusion of depth.

Label the picture below to illustrate the shallow side and the cliff side.

This is a form of distance perception

Use page 83 and 84

for help!

Design and procedure continued…Human trials

Each child was placed ____________________________as they were individually tested. The mother of each child was present in the hopes this would motivate the children to move on the apparatus. The mother called the baby towards her; first from the _____ side, and then from the ______ side. The behaviour of the child was ____________ and recorded.Animal trials

The researchers observed and recorded the behaviour of a number of different animals on the visual cliff. This included a number of kittens who had been reared in total darkness for ____ days. Some of the animals came from Cornell Behaviour farm where Gibson (the researcher) worked.Control trials

The researcher performed a number of alterations to the set-up to check any hidden bias. These include:

The researchers assessed the impact of each change at one time, observing any differences in the behaviour of rats.Separation of visual cues

In order to investigate the impact of different visual cues, the researchers introduced a variation that included two different materials being placed below each side. The two involved in perceiving depth are:

a) Relative size

b) Motion parallax

RESULTS:

Human trials

Animal trials

Control trials

Seperation of visual cues

Conclusion:

1. Nature and nurture play an influence in the development of depth perception

2. Binocular cues such as motion parallax are innate, while monocular cues such as size are constancy are learned

3. Humans and other animals have developed some depth perception by the time of the onset of mobility, which is specifically suited to the habitat and behaviour of their species

Answer the following exam questionUsing the research by Gibson & Walk (1960), explain how experimental studies can be used to understand perceptual development [10 marks]

Application: At least one play strategy to develop perception in young children

In this topic we have considered the ‘normal’ development of perception. The development of perception in humans and animals is affected by exposure to different types and levels of stimulation, as well as the individuals capacity to process and make sense of sensory information. In some cases, abnormal perception can be explained by sensory deprivation, such as the dark-reared kittens who lacked normal depth perception (Gibson & Walk, 1960).Individuals with developmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) or autistic spectrum disorder (ASD) may struggle to receive, process and make sense of information provided by the senses. Not all children with ADHD or ASD have sensory processing difficulties. However, some people with ASD can be either:

Hyper-sensitive (over sensitive). This means…

Hypo-sensitive (under sensitive). This means…

Psychologists and therapists working with these children design interventions at early ages to help facilitate their perceptual development through play.One strategy: Sensory integrative therapy (SI therapy). Read page 87+88 in the pink butterfly textbook and answer the following.1. Who is it aimed for?

2. What is it proposed to do?

3. Explain what is involved in the therapy

Answer the exam question: Sally is a nurse at a post-natal clinic specialising in sensory awareness. She advises parents on ways to help their newborn babies to develop. Discuss how Sally’s knowledge of studies of perceptual development in children and animals will influence the suggestions she makes to the parents she meets. [10 marks]

4. Is it effective?

Ethical issues Methodological issues

Usefulness of research

Nature vs Nurture

Freewill vs Determinism

Reductionism vs Holism Psychology as a science

On a separate piece of paper…Evaluate the topic

How does the topic link to each of the following debates

Answer the following exam question:

Assess the role of science in psychology, using Gibson and Walk’s study of perceptual development as an example [15 marks]

FOUR: Cognitive development and educationBackground: Cognitive development in children and the impact of this on education

It was previously assumed children knew less than adults. Bandura suggests in the social learning theory that children’s knowledge and skills increase over time through observation and imitation.According to Piaget (1896-1980), children do not think about the world in the same way as adults do. He suggests, children are born with basic mental structures upon which all other knowledge and skills are built. Piaget used a range of methods to explore how children’s thinking evolved and becomes more sophisticated over time. He also developed a universal stage theory of development (see below).

Piaget suggests children’s learning of the world is based on the creation and development of schemata’s. Using page 91 in the pink butterfly textbook…Explain what ‘schemata’ means. You should provide an example to support this explanation.

What is assimilation?

What is accommodation?

Using the textbook (page 92-93), explain the impact cognitive development has on education

Key research: Wood et al. (1976) The role of tutoring in problem-solving

AIM:Explore the process of tutoring. With specific interest in describing the instructional relationships between adult tutors and children in the context of skill acquisition and problem solving.What does this mean?? Reword the above aim.

METHOD: Volunteer sample 30 children from same region in the USA Middle or lower middle-class families

Even number of boys and girls Equal numbers of 3, 4 and 5-year olds

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE:The participants (who were accompanied by their parents) were tutored in individual sessions lasting between 20 minutes to one hour.The tutor attempted to teach the children how to build a three-dimensional structure. This required a skill which was beyond their capabilities.The tutor was required to instruct verbally but to let the children be as independent as possible in carrying out the task. The task:

The children sat before 21 blocks of various shapes and sizes spread out in a jumble

The child was invited to play with the blocks for 5 minutes in order to get used to them

The tutor then would take two of the smallest blocks and demonstrate how the blocks could be connected. (if the child already connected blocks during their free play, the tutor would tell them to ‘make some more like that’).

The tutor then recognised the three potential responses of the child

What is bad about this?

What is good about this?

1. The child ignored the tutor and continued to play2. The child took the blocks they had just connected and

manipulated them3. The child took new blocks and attempted to make something

similar to what had just been made Scoring

The tutor indicated whether the child had received assistance from the tutor during construction (‘assisted’), or if they constructed them themselves (‘unassisted’).

The experimenters noted when the constructed object did not meet requirement constraints or were mismatched. They also noted if the child rejected them.

Interventions of the tutor were noted in one of three categories; ‘direct assistance’, a ‘verbal error prompt’ eg does this ___ look like this ___, and thirdly, a straightforward prompt for the child to attempt more constructs (eg, can you make more like this).

RESULTS:Using page 95 in the pink butterfly textbooks, outline the median total number of ‘acts’ for each of the three age groups.

Participant age Median number of acts % of acts that were unassisted constructs

341

75%

Summary of results: The older children selected two matching blocks without the need

for previous trial and error more often than younger children The 3 year old children took almost as many correct constructions

as they put together Two-thirds of the time, the 3 year olds reconstructed without

instruction to do so. The 3 and 4 year olds had similar liklihoods of reassembling correct

constructs and not incorrect ones. This shows that they were as able to recognise correct outcomes.

The greatest difference is seen in the interactions between tutor and different age group. Explain what was found. Including the different roles of the tutor.

The experimenters outline the following process of ‘scaffolding’ in relation to a theory of instruction:

1. Recruitment

2. Reduction in degrees of freedom

3. Direction of maintenance

4. Marking critical/features

5. Frustration control

6. Demonstration

CONCLUSIONS:ONE: Increasing age meant a greater likelihood of task success, and improvement in the achievement of the more complex aspects of the task.

TWO:

THREE:

Answer the exam question:Explain how the research by Wood et al (1976) could be used to improve children’s learning in an educational setting [10 marks]

Application: At least one cognitive strategy to improve revision of learning

Our knowledge of how the mind processes information can be applied in education to improve revision and learning through cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies include any mental technique for enhancing processes such as memory, concentration or problem solving. Strategies are different from skills; because they require us to make a conscious decision and choices about the most appropriate and effective ways of achieving a particular goal. One example of this strategy is known as a ‘mnemonic’.What is a mnemonic?

What is an example of a mnemonic?

What is the structural processing involved in visual mnemonics?

What is the phonemic processing involved in auditory mnemonics?

Are mnemonics effective? You should cover both sides of the argument (yes and no). Ensure you explain why and include studies to support your answer.

Answer the following exam question

1. Leroy is a new teacher at Park School and has a lunchtime craft group with students aged between 6 and 10 years old. He is aware that the older and younger children might have different needs when learning crafts such as sewing and woodwork. Discuss how Leroy’s understanding of the cognitive development of children will impact on the way he treats the children in his group [10 marks]

2. Assess the usefulness of research into cognitive development in children in the context of education [15 marks]

Evaluate the topicCan you measure mental processes?

Is it ethical?

How does the topic link to the following debates: Nature vs Nurture

Freewill vs determinism

Psychology as a science

Usefulness of research

TOPIC FIVE: DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENTBackground: The development of attachment and babies, and the impact of failure to develop attachments

Part one of background: The development of attachment & BabiesThis topic looks at the development of attachment in humans and how early attachment experiences can affect us in later life. Before we look at this, what does the term ‘attachment’ mean??

According to psychologists, attachment contain three essential qualities. These are outlined in the middle boxes below. You should match up each quality with the correct explanation and its corresponding image.

While we form numerous attachments throughout our lives, our first attachment is considered to be the most important. Child psychologists have sought to understand the nature of infant’s relationships to their (first) attachment figure, to identify different styles of attachment and to consider the purpose and consequence of attachment. You will notice that in early research, the attachment figure studied is usually the mother as she most always was the primary carer (especially in older studies. Think of the stereotypic role of females in the family).Psychologist Lorenz studied ‘imprinting’. Imprinting is when an animal learns to recognise the characteristics of its parent. This occurs during the first few days of life, during a time called the ‘crucial period’. He studied imprinting in geese. He famously found that geese will imprint on the first moving stimulus they see shortly after

Proximity-seeking

Separation anxiety or protest

Happiness at reunion

Displeasure or distress at leaving this person

Experiencing pleasure at being close to the person again

Wanting to be close to the other person

hatching, whether or not it has feathers! If you look in the image, you will see the geese follow Lorenz as if he was their mother.

As attachment behaviours such as imprinting can be observed in other species, a psychologist named Bowlby suggests that attachments have an evolutionary purpose. In layman’s terms, forming an attachment will support your survival. For example, babies heavily rely on their care givers for basic needs. In prehistoric times, you could consider babies who formed attachments with carers and maintained proximity as having a lowered risk of being eaten by predators and encountering other dangerous. This is an example of an adaptive behaviour. This allows humans and other animals to become more suited to survival in their environments. What does this mean for humans in today’s society??

Bowlby suggests that human infants possess adaptive mechanisms for eliciting parental responses. He suggests there are several innate behaviours (behaviours you are born knowing) that are key to shaping and controlling parenting responses. These are known as social releasers and each is an example of adaptive functioning.Below you should describe each of the behaviours alongside the desired parental response.1.

2.

3.

There are a number of attachment types identified by Ainsworth (1978). You do not need to know the Strange Situation used to find these yet, as this will be covered in the key research part of the topic. You should outline what the following types of attachments are.Type A

Type B

Type C

Type D

Part two of background: The impact of failure to develop attachmentsBowlby introduced the ‘internal working model’ for attachment. He suggests that children form a mental representation of their first attachment relationship, which then forms a model for later relationships. According to the theory, children who form kind, loving bonds with their primary attachment figure will internalise the relationship as a model for future attachments. Likewise, he also suggests children who have been abused or neglected will be more likely to go on to reproduce those patterns of behaviour. In simple terms, this means; if you have a poor first attachment with your primary attachment figure, all your relationships will be poor. Similarly, if you have a good attachment, all relationships that follow will be good. In the box below, explain the two things which Bowlby suggests will happen if children fail to form an attachment at all during their early

years.Later, Bowlby acknowledged he may have over stated the consequences of maternal deprivation.Rutter (1981) says…

Key Research: Ainsworth & Bell (1970). Attachment, Exploration and Separation: Illustrated by the Behaviour of One-year-olds in a Strange Situation

AIM: To investigate the interaction between…

SAMPLE: 56 _____-year old babies and their _____ All from white, middle class family backgrounds Families were contacted for participation through their _____________

from _________ practices Of the sample, _____ babies had been observed longitudinally from

_______ onwards, and were observed in the ‘Strange Situation’ at _____ weeks

The remaining ______ were observed when ______ weeks oldDESIGN:

Controlled observation Standard procedure called ‘Strange Situation’

involving 8 different episodes (stages) which all took place in same order for all participants

The ‘strange situation’ was designed to encourage the babies to explore their new environment

Care was taken to ensure the environment was not too strange, which would hinder the babies exploration

Each of the episodes (stages) were carried out in a specific order so that the least ‘disturbing’ events would occur first.

The researchers wanted to avoid heightened attachment behaviour and observe more typical reactions

Explain the layout of the room used in the ‘Strange Situation’:

What is good and bad about this sample??

Why would they do this?

There are eight boxes below. In each box, you should demonstrate each stage of the Strange Situation. You may wish to write and draw the

events.

Use the space below to note any other information from the study

RESULTS:Exploratory behaviour

Crying

Search behaviour during separation

Proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviours

Contact-resisting and proximity-avoiding behaviours

CONCLUSION:1. In threatening situations, attachment behaviour __________2. The attachment figure is used as a ______________ for exploration by

the infant3. There are observable differences in attachment styles; attachment

can look different between pairs.

Answer the following exam question(s):1. Explain how the research by Ainsworth & Bell (1970) could be used to

identify children with attachment problems [10 marks]2. Assess ethical problems with the use of children in Ainsworth & Bell’s

study of the development of attachment [15 marks]

Application: At least one strategy to develop an attachment friendly environment

In 1951, Bowlby submitted a report to the World Health Organisation (WHO) as part of an international programme concerned with the welfare of homeless children. The report contained data that Bowlby had collected on the effect of maternal deprivation on homeless and disturbed children across Europe and the USA. His research found negative outcomes for children across a range of contexts associated with infant-mother separations.Bowlby was well aware of the importance of proximity and stability in forming secure attachments. In the 1950’s, children were often removed from family homes and sent to live with foster families or in group homes, because they were born to unmarried mothers or lived in impoverished, overcrowded homes. Bowlby argued, with the exception of abuse and neglect, offering aid in the form of financial assistance and support from social services to these families was far preferable to separation.Children’s experiences of hospitalisation In the box below, outline children’s experiences of hospitalisation.

Attachment and Family-Centred CareIn the box below, outline how modern hospital polices have changed dramatically since the work of Bowlby (1951) and Robertson (1952).

On a separate piece of paper…Evaluate the topic

Link the topic to debatesNature vs Nurture Freewill vs Determinism

Usefulness of research

Reductionism vs Holism Psychology as a science

Answer the following exam question:1. Kate works with infants at a nursery, some of whom find adjusting

to the nursery very difficult. Her boss has asked her to provide a leaflet for parents about possible changes the nursery could make to become a more attachment-friendly environment. Discuss a strategy that Kate could suggest that could help to develop an attachment-friendly environment either for use in the child’s home or in the nursery [10 marks]

TOPIC SIX: THE IMPACT OF ADVERTISING ON CHILDRENBackground: The influence of television advertising on children and the stereotyping in such advertisingPart one of background: The influence of television advertising on children

Which core study do you already know of that may fit under the phrases ‘influence of television advertising on children’

It is well know that many children and adolescents (and adults for that matter!) spend considerable amounts of time exposed to sources of media. Having access to countless media outlets increases children’s exposure to both positive television content (For example… ) and negative content (For example… ). Since television began, there has been great concern about its influence on children. These concerns are worthy of investigation, in the context of the accelerated commercialisation of the television in the UK over recent years. Explain below what ‘the accelerated commercialisation of the television’ means

Can children be consumers?In previous years, adults were thought of as the target area of consumer. Since the introduction of the television, this has changed slightly. Do you think children can be consumers? Outline your thoughts below

Worldwide, there are a vast number of for-profit channels, including many specifically targeted towards young children that are supported by advertising fees. In the UK, where parents may have a fair amount of disposable income, children are a target audience for products such as toys, holidays, food and beverages all designed to meet their needs and appeal to their wants. For example, Pine & Nash (2002) found that children who watch _______ commercial television than non-commercial television tend to request _______ numbers of toys from Santa Claus.

Research has consistently shown a correlation between a children’s viewing and their learned behaviours and attitudes. Outline the Bandura study below.

Part two of background: Stereotypes in advertising

A stereotype is…

Some theorists argue that advertising engages viewers or consumers in a much larger cultural process than we may at first be aware of. They suggest that advertisers need to create a market for products such as children’s toys. And to do this, advertisers use messages to draw on and perpetuate existing dominating ideas about gender, ethnicity and class. Often these involve the use of stereotypes.What are the stereotypes of…

Girls Boys

There is a lot of evidence to suggest that stereotypes about gender are shared and exaggerated through the advertising of children’s toys.Outline below what Smith (1994) found about…

Adverts featuring only one gender

What the typical portrayal of girls in adverts are

What the typical portrayal of boys in adverts are

What he suggests limiting gender roles within adverts does to children’s ideas on play

Key research: Johnson & Young (2002) Gendered voices in children’s advertising

AIM: To determine whether advertisers scripted television adverts differently for males and females of school age, linking toys to gender stereotypical rolesMETHOD:Discuss how the sample in this study is different to the sample of most other studies. You should include details of the sample below.

DESIGN AND PROCEDURE:Content analysis is…

Discourse analysis is…

The analysis looked at mostly toy adverts, which were categorised by gender target audience into the following groups:

Adverts targeted to boys in which boys were represented Adverts targeted to girls in which girls were represented Adverts targeting both boys and girls either because both genders

were represented or because there was no gender-specific content.Researchers identified gender in advert voice-overs as well as the presence of gender exaggeration in voices. For example, this could be female voices that were high pitched and excited; or male voices that

were deep and powerful-sounding. (NOTE: Most female political figures, like Margaret Thatcher or Theresa May, undergo voice training to make their voices sound deeper, assuming this will make them appear more ‘powerful’ and ‘dominant’).The adverts were analysed in terms of…

Speaking lines of males and females The use of the word ‘power’ in male-oriented adverts The verb elements used.

The verb elements used were broken down into five categories. 1. Action verb elements. This means…

2. Competition/destruction verb elements. This means…

3. Power/control verb elements. This means…

4. Limited-activity verb elements. This means…

5. Feeling and nurturing verb elements. This means…

RESULTS:In total, ___toy adverts were recorded. When combined, adverts for ___-oriented toys outnumbered those oriented towards ____. There were very few gender non-specific adverts.For example, in 1999 there were _____ boy oriented adverts but only ______ girl oriented adverts, with only _____ boy and girl oriented adverts.Outline in the box below, what the researchers found about the naming of the toys.

Outline in the box below, what the researchers found about the types of toys available

Outline in the box below, what the researchers found about the voices in the adverts

Outline in the box below, what the researchers found about the verbs used in the adverts

CONCLUSION:1. Gender stereotypes underlie television adverts as they portray

males and females through traditional gender stereotypical discourse

2. Reasons for gender-stereotypical portrayal might include reliabne on historically successful marketing strategies and/or profitability in creating gender-specific consumer-behaviour (ie creating markets for both male and female products).

Action verb elements.

Competition/destruction verb elements.

Power/control verb elements.

Limited-activity verb elements.

Feeling and nurturing verb elements.

Application: At least one strategy to reduce impact of advertising which is aimed at children

As we have seen, television adverts targeted at children can reinforce stereotypes such as traditional gender roles and encourage gender stereotypical play. Television adverts have been heavily criticised by organisations such as the Food Standards Agency (FSA) for encouraging unhealthy eating habits and obesity in young people. For example, FSA found that promotion of food to children is dominaned by savoury snacks and fast food outlets. As a result of an increasing awareness about this, some governements (one of which is in Sweeden) have legislated against all advertising aimed at children below a certain age. Others have imposed legal restrictions on the nature, timing and content of advertising aimed at children and rely on self-regulatory bodies, such as the National Advertising Standards in the UK.Media literacyUsing page 116 in the pink butterfly textbook explain what it means to become ‘media literate’?

Why is it important children should be ‘media literate’?

There are several media literacy programmes in the UK. You should explain the two media literacy programmes below.1. Media Smart

2. Be AdWise

Answer the following exam question:1. Explain how the research by Johnson and Young (2002) helps us to

understand the influence of advertising on children [10 marks]

Difficult area to approach without any preconceived

ideas

Is there a valid and reliable way to measure it?

The use of content and discourse analysis? Is there a way to

work more directly with children?

Nature vs Nurture

Freewill vs Determinism

Reductionism and Holism

Individual and Situational explanations

Psychology as a science

Usefulness of research

Answer the following exam questions:1. Assess problems of sampling bias in the study of the influence of television advertising on children [15 marks]

2. Carly runs a preschool nursery and although some parents are happy that the children are allowed to watch appropriate tv shows during the day, others have raised concerns about whether the children should be allowed to watch the advertisements between programmes. Discuss the evidence that television advertising may influence the children in the nursery [10 marks]

Evaluate the topic

YOU SHOULD COMPLETE THESE TASKS

ON A SEPARATE PIECE OF PAPER

Link the topic to the following debates