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Leadership Styles, Skills, and Standards

In Response to:

The request by the Lancaster Lebanon IU 13 to provide a synthesis of the extant

literature on effective leadership characteristics as a resource to inform their

development of a new evaluation system for their administrative and supervisory

staff.

Helen C. Sobehart, D. A.

Faculty & Director of the Duquesne University Leadership Institute

and Interdisciplinary Doctoral Program for Educational Leaders

Beth A. Whipple, B. A.

Graduate Assistant for the Duquesne University Leadership Institute

June 2001

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Leadership Styles, Skills, and Standards

In order to evaluate effective leaders, one must design an evaluation system built upon the

foundation of the existing research on effective leadership characteristics. As part of its long range

planning, the Lancaster Lebanon Intermediate Unit has adopted a goal of revising the Middle

Management performance appraisal instrument to provide an adequate evaluation system for

recognizing employee's unique talents, strengths, and accomplishments. To assist in developing a

new evaluation system for its administrative and supervisory staff, the Leadership Institute has

conducted an extensive review of the literature on the leadership and management characteristics

associated with effective administrative and supervisory behaviors. The literature review identified

several different factors that are associated with effective leaders. This report provides an overview

of the findings of the literature review, discusses these important factors, and offers suggestions for

the development of the evaluation system.

Overview of Leadership Research

Many researchers have studied leadership from different perspectives and have found

various characteristics associated with effective leadership. The leadership research has taken three

main approaches: 1) Trait Approach (Style), 2) Behavior Approach (Skill), and 3) Situational

Approach (Role Competency). Each approach has played a major role in the history of leadership

research and an overview of their findings is essential in defining the characteristics of an effective

leader.

Trait Approach (Style)

In the 1940's and 1950's, the trait approach was often utilized to determine what were

the unique traits or characteristics of leaders. Most studies focused on variables such as

physical characteristics, personality characteristics, and intelligence. Stogdill (1948)

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reviewed over a hundred of these leadership studies completed between 1904 and 1947 and

found that most of the traits associated with leadership fell into five categories:

Capacity: intelligence, alertness, verbal facility, originality, judgement Achievement: scholarship, knowledge, athletic accomplishments Responsibility: dependability, initiative, persistence, aggressiveness, self-

confidence, desire to excel

Participation: activity, sociability, cooperation,adaptability, humor Status: socioeconomic position, popularity

Although Stogdill identified these characteristics, he stated that possession of these

characteristics does not guarantee the person will be an effective leader (Stogdill, 1948).

Recent trait studies have acknowledged that if a leader possesses some of these

characteristics, the likelihood that he / she will be an effective leader will be increased

(Yukl, 1998). The recent research has suggested that there are two types of traits associated

with effective leadership: 1) Personality and 2) Motivation.

Personality traits

Personality traits are relatively stable dispositions to behave in a particular

way (Yukl, 1998). Several different personality traits have been found to be

associated with effective leaders.

Self-confidenceSelf-confidence is one personality trait that is often found in

effective leaders (Bass, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Goertz, 2000;

Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill, 1974). A leader's self-confidence motivates

them to undertake grave responsibilities, deal with stressful situations,

and generate confidence in others (Locke, 1991). By building self-

confidence in others, leaders are able to encourage others that they

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can perform their jobs successfully and can contribute to achieving

the vision of the organization (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Without self-

confidence, a leader cannot be sure of what decisions to make and

cannot develop confidence in others which are crucial to

organizations (Locke, 1991).

Emotional maturityAnother personality trait associated with effective leaders is

emotional maturity, which entails characteristics such as accurate

awareness of their strengths and weaknesses and not ashamed to

admit their shortcomings (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Emotionally mature

leaders can also maintain cooperative relationships with others (Hoy

& Miskel, 2001).

IntegrityEffective leaders also possess integrity in which they are

dependable, trustworthy, and reliable in carrying out their

responsibilities. (Bass, 1990; Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1988;

Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Stogdill, 1948). These qualities are the key

to developing trusting relationships between leaders and followers

and obtaining cooperation and support from others (Kouzes & Posner,

1995; Yukl, 1998). Leaders gain trust by being predictable, consistent,

and persistent (Bennis & Nanus, 1985).

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Motivational traits

Effective leaders are often characterized by motivational traits which initiate

work related behavior (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).

Desire for achievementLeaders are motivated by their desire for achievement of some

goal or task (Bass, 1990; Goertz, 2000; Mumford, O'Connor, Clifton,

Connelly, and Zaccaro, 1991; Stogdill, 1974; Yukl, 1989). Effective

leaders enjoy challenging activities and are motivated to follow

through with assignments and projects to improve the organization

(Locke, 1991).

Willingness to assume responsibilityLeaders have a willingness to assume responsibility for their

position and carry out their role (Locke, 1991).

A concern for peopleA concern for people also motivates effective leaders (Hoy &

Miskel, 2001). Leaders are motivated to meet the needs of others and

use that motivation to complete required work (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).

As evidenced by the research, effective leadership is associated with various traits

that can be grouped into personality and motivation. It is important to keep in mind that

although a combination of traits may be found in effective leaders, the research suggests that

no single trait guarantees that a leader will be effective (Yukl, 1989).

Although certain characteristics are associated with effective leadership, leaders

exhibit these characteristics in different degrees. In order to evaluate effective leadership,

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one must consider leadership style because leaders may possess various leadership styles

and be effective in different ways. For example, the Gallup Organization Leadership

Perceiver Assessment suggests that the following twelve leadership styles exist:

Commitment: has an immense capacity for being completelydedicated to a career or mission; sees their life as

dedicated to the encouragement and development

of staff members and students

Concept: has a set of ideas with which they explain howthey manage their organizations; knows and can

describe their own management style; sets

performance objectives; has ways to measure their

own progress

Ego Drive: wants to define themselves as a significantperson;willing to claim their role as a leader and example

to others and take the risk of putting themselves

forth as an example to peers and staff

Achiever: has an inner drive which continuously propelsthem to make things happen and get things done;has more energy than other people; when they

are working with other people, they generally get

more work done than others

Developer: receives satisfaction out of facilitating thegrowth ofstaff members with whom they work; can multiply

their impact through the efforts of their staff; knows

that the more their staff members grow, the more

likely the students will grow

Individualized: attuned to individual differences of theirstaffmembers; comfortable in knowing that each staff

member is unique and needs something different

Relator: has care and concern for their staff members;

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makes it a point to be close to staff members by

getting to know them

Stimulator: creates positivity, excitement, and good feelingsin teaching environment; has an instinct for

knowing how to make other people feel good

Team: enjoys getting people to work together toachieve their goals; has discovered that they

have the capacity for getting people to be more

productive by working together

Arranger: knows how to set things up and make themwork; can systematize people within an

environment so the people can be successful;

flexible and keeps changing their "plays" in

order to achieve their goals

Command: can be in charge and make things happen; hascourage to ask for action; is persuasive and if

necessary, will get tough with people in order to

do what must be done

Discipline: structures their life and brings structure to livesof people with whom they work with; has an

order in their life; can be depended upon to do

what they say they will do

Behavior Approach (Skill)

The behavior approach focuses on the leader's behaviors or skills such as the manner

in which they solve problems and how they communicate with others (Yukl, 1989). The

early research on behaviors associated with leadership mainly focused on two dimensions:

initiating structure and consideration (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Initiating structure involves

delineating the relationship between the leader and other members and establishing well

defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and methods of procedure

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(Halpin, 1966). Consideration consists of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the

relationship between the leader and others (Halpin, 1966). Studies have suggested that

effective leaders have high ratings of both initiating structure and consideration and are able

to fulfill their job responsibilities and develop effective relationships with others (Hoy &

Miskel, 2001). Although these two dimensions may play a role in leadership, there are other

types of behaviors that have an impact on leader effectiveness.

Task-oriented behaviors

Task-oriented behaviors involve activities such as clarifying roles, planning

and organizing operations, and monitoring organizational functions (Yukl, 1998). To

engage in these actions, leaders must accomplish tasks, use resources efficiently, and

make improvements (Yukl, 1998).

Technical skillsLeaders have technical skills to deal with the specialized

knowledge, procedures, and techniques associated with their job

responsibilities (Yukl, 1998).

Administrative skillsLeaders have administrative skills to manage activities such

as planning, mentoring, delegating, supervising, and handling

meetings (Hoy & Miskel, 2001).

Proactive behavior

Effective leaders often engage in behaviors that lead to

productive change instead of waiting for things to happen and react to

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problems (Bass, 1990; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Pitner & Ogawa,

1989).

Relations-oriented behaviors

Effective leaders often have relations-oriented behaviors in which they

develop relationships, increase cooperation and teamwork, and build commitment to

the organization (Yukl, 1998).

Communication skillsCommunication skills are an essential component of

interpersonal skills (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Mumford et al., 1991;

Mumford et al., 2000; Pitner & Ogawa, 1989; Stogdill, 1974; Yukl,

1989). Both verbal and nonverbal communication skills are important

for leaders because they must be able to communicate their messages

to a variety of individuals (Bennis & Nanus, 1985).

Listening skillsAnother important characteristic of effective leaders is good

listening skills. (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1982; Pitner &

Ogawa, 1989; Yukl, 1989). Good listening skills entail hearing what

the individual has said, understanding what he/she has communicated,

and making the individual aware that you have understood what

he/she has said (Kouzes & Posner, 1995). Listening allows leaders to

obtain information and feedback from others to use as resources

(Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Active listening is often used by leaders in

which they ask questions, restate comments, and check to see if

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interpretations are accurate (Locke, 1991). By listening to others,

effective leaders are able to demonstrate respect for others and their

ideas which helps to build trust (Kouzes & Posner, 1995).

Problem solving & conflict management skillsLeaders have conceptual skills to develop and use ideas to

plan, organize, and solve problems (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). Conflict

and problems are inevitable in any organizations and can present

various challenges. With problem solving and conflict management

skills, effective leaders are able to successfully deal with these

challenges and determine appropriate courses of action to solve

problems (Kotter, 1982; Mumford et al., 2000; Smith, 1997).

Motivate othersEffective leaders are able to motivate others to make

commitments to goals and comply with rules and procedures by using

strategies such as praising and coaching (Bennis & Nanus, 1985;

Goertz, 2000; Kotter, 1988; Mumford et al., 2000; Stogdill, 1974).

Change-oriented behaviors

Change-oriented behaviors involves articulating an attractive vision and

creating a coalition to support and implement changes (Yukl, 1998).

Establish a vision

Effective leaders can establish a vision which, "articulates a

view of a realistic, credible, attractive future for the organization, a

condition that is better in some important ways than what now exists."

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(Bennis & Nanus, 1985, p.89). A vision is extremely important in schools

because it provides a direction for the school organization to move

towards (Sage & Burrello, 1994).

Articulate vision to othersLeaders are able to articulate that vision to others in a

compelling way (Bennis & Nanus, 1985; Kotter, 1990; Kouzes &

Posner, 1995; Manasse, 1986; Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs,

Fleishman, 2000; Sage & Burrello, 1994) and encourage others to be

motivated by that vision and work toward making it reality (Bennis &

Nanus, 1985; Goertz, 2000; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Mumford et al.,

2000). Leaders in schools are able to communicate the meaning and

purpose of vision to others, obtain their commitment and sense of

partnership, and articulate these qualities into organizational goals,

structures, and programs (Sergiovanni, 1990).

Adapt to changing situationsLeaders can adapt to different situations and remain

productive even with changing circumstances (Bass, 1990; Goertz,

2000; Kouzes & Posner, 1995; Smith 1997; Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill,

1974; Zaccaro, Foti, & Kenny, 1991; Zaccaro, Gilbert, Thor, &

Mumford, 1991). A leader must be flexible to meet the needs of

various situation because changes are always occurring (Bass, 1990).

A leader who is not flexible may become set in their ways and not

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adapt to needed changes which could be detrimental in any

organization (Locke, 1991).

Pennsylvania Leadership Development Center's leadership skills

As a result of many intensive national studies conducted by the American

Association of School Administrators (AASA) and the National Association of

Secondary School Principals (NASSP), eleven effective leadership skills were

identified. Those skills form the foundation of the Pennsylvania Leadership

Development Center (PLDC). The PLDC provides experienced superintendents and

aspiring superintendents the opportunity to meet, collaborate, learn from each other,

and develop individualized growth opportunities. The program focuses on the

following leadership skills:

Encouraging innovation Planning and implementing strategic change Serving the needs of diverse constituents Acquiring and interpreting key information Resisting premature judgements Resolving complex problems Communicating expectations Developing and empowering others Balancing complex demands Understanding personal strengths Acquiring new learnings

As one can see, there are many behaviors exhibited by leaders that contribute to their

effectiveness. Although prior research focused only on initiating structure and consideration,

many other behaviors such as task-oriented behaviors, relations-oriented behaviors, and

change-oriented behaviors have been found to be associated with effective leaders. The

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eleven leadership skills of PLDC are also important to keep in mind when thinking about

effective leadership skills and behaviors.

Situational Approach (Role Competency)

The situational approach is concerned with the importance of situational factors such

as that nature of the work, the nature of the work environment, and the role requirements of

the position (Yukl, 1989). This approach is also known as the contingency approach because

the effects of leader behavior are contingent on the situation (Yukl, 1989). Various

situational characteristics have been found to be associated with leadership (Hoy & Miskel,

2001):

Structural properties of organization:size, hierarchicalstructure, formalization, technology

Role characteristics:type and difficulty of task, procedural rules, contentand performance expectations, power

Subordinate characteristics:education, age, knowledge and experience,tolerance for ambiguity, responsibility, power

Internal environment:climate, culture, openness, participation levels,group atmosphere, values, norms

External environment:complexity, stability, uncertainty, resourcedependency, institutionalization

One situational factor, the role requirements of a position, is very important when

evaluating leadership effectiveness because various positions may have different

responsibilities and require different leadership characteristics. When developing an

evaluation system, role competencies should be used as a basis for evaluating performance

(Harris & Monk, 1992). The role competencies of positions assist in creating clearer

evaluations of performance by describing task-relevant activity and the relations among

people, problems addressed, and situations encountered in particular positions (Harris &

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Monk, 1992). For instance, the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC)

has created role competencies for school leaders based on school leadership and school

improvement research and literature (Council of Chief State School Officials, 1996). The

ISLLC role competencies for school leaders were developed to strengthen school

administration through a variety of ways such as improving the programs that prepare school

leaders and designing a framework to better assess candidates for licensing purposes

(Council of Chief State School Officials, 1996). The ISLLC role competencies consist of the

following:

Facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, andstewardship of a vision that is shared and supported by the school

community

Advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructionalprogram conducive to student learning and staff professional growth

Ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources fora safe, effective, and efficient learning environment

Collaborate with families and community members, respond to diversecommunity interests and needs, and mobilize community resources

Act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner Understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social,

economic, legal, and cultural context

Based on extensive research and collaboration with individuals involved with school

superintendency, the AASA has also developed role competencies for superintendents that

they must meet in order to provide effective leadership for today's schools (American

Association of School Administrators, 1993). The role competencies focus on eight

particular areas:

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Leadership, values, ethics Policy and governance Planning, quality, and organizational problem solving Human resources management Leadership and district culture Communications and community relations Curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation Instructional management

Appendix A includes the full listing of the role competencies of superintendents as

well as the role competencies of other positions in Intermediate Units and may be helpful in

designing your evaluation system.

Recommendations for Developing an Evaluation Assessment System

The effectiveness of leaders may comprise of a variety of factors such as specific leadership

characteristics, personal style, and specific role competencies (Sobehart, 2000). In order to be

effective, leaders must adapt their leadership behavior to elements such as the situation, the needs of

group, and the job demands (Bass, 1990; Goertz, 2000; Smith, 1997; Stogdill, 1948; Stogdill, 1974;

Zaccaro et al., 1991). Effective leaders are able to tailor their leadership style or behavior to the

situation and utilize these behaviors to meet the needs of the situation and carry out the role

competencies for their particular positions. Sobehart (2000) suggests that leadership is a three

dimensional cube with leadership style, skills, and specific role competencies intersecting with each

other. Figure 1 illustrates the AASA role competencies of superintendents, the leadership skills that

the PLDC program focuses on, and the Gallup Leadership Styles that compose Sobehart's three

dimensional cube (Sobehart, 2000). When designing your evaluation system, leadership skills

should be the main emphasis, with some focus on the specific role competencies that individuals are

required to carry out.

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Figure 1

Based on the extensive literature review conducted, the Leadership Institute suggests that

when developing your evaluation system for supervisory and administrative staff, leadership skills

should be the main emphasis, with some focus on the specific role competencies. The following

characteristics of effective leaders should be acknowledged:

Personality and Motivational Traits:

* self-confidence * emotional maturity

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* willingness to assume responsibility * integrity

* desire for achievement * concern for people

Task-oriented Behaviors:

* technical skills * administrative skills

* proactive behavior

Relations-oriented Behaviors:

* communication skills * listening skills

* problem solving & conflict management skills

* motivate others

Change-oriented Behaviors:

* establish a vision * articulate the vision

* adapt to changing situations

Pennsylvania Leadership Development Center's Leadership Skills:

* encouraging innovation * resisting premature judgements

* acquiring and interpreting key information * resolving complex problems

* planning and implementing strategic change * communicating expectations

* serving the needs of diverse constituents * balancing complex demands

* acquiring and interpreting key information * acquiring new learnings

* developing & empowering others

* understanding personal strengths

Situational Characteristics:

* structural properties of organization * role characteristics

* subordinate characteristics * internal environment

* external environment

ISLLC Role Competencies of School Leaders:

* facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a

vision that is shared and supported by the school community

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* advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructional program

conducive to student learning and staff professional growth

* ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe,

effective, and efficient learning environment

* collaborate with families and community members, respond to diverse community

interests and needs, and mobilize community resources

* act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner

* understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social, economic, legal,

and cultural context

Another recommendation is to utilize the Personnel Evaluation Standards as a filter to guide

and assess your system. Developed by the Joint Committee on Standards for Educational

Evaluation, the Personnel Evaluation Standards address the design, implementation, and

effectiveness of an evaluation system (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational

Evaluation, 1988). The Personnel Evaluation Standards are comprised of twenty-one standards

divided into four categories: propriety, utility, feasibility, and accuracy (The Joint Committee on

Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The propriety standards are useful in ensuring that

certain ethical and legal principles are addressed and not violated (The Joint Committee on

Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The utility standards help guide evaluation systems so

they will be informative, timely, and influential (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational

Evaluation, 1988). The feasibility standards encourage evaluation systems to be efficient, easy to

use, viable in the face of social, political, and governmental forces and that will be adequately

funded (The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988). The accuracy

standards focus on assessing the evaluation system to determine if it produces sound information

(The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 1988).

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Propriety

Service orientation: Evaluation system should promote sound educationprinciples, fulfill institutional missions, and effective performance of job

responsibilities so educational needs of students, community, and society are

met. Formal evaluation guidelines:Guidelines should be recorded in statements of

policy, negotiated agreements, and/or personnel evaluation manuals, so

evaluations are consistent, equitable, and in accordance with pertinent laws and

ethical codes. Conflict of interest: Conflicts of interest should be identified and dealt with

openly and honestly, so that they do not compromise the evaluation process and

results. Access to personnel evaluation reports: Access to these reports should be

limited to those individuals with a legitimate need to review and use the reports,

so that appropriate use of information is assured. Interaction with evaluatees: Evaluation system should address evaluatees in a

professional, considerate and courteous manner, so that their self-esteem,

motivation, professional reputations, performance, and attitude toward personnel

evaluation are enhanced, or at least, not needlessly damaged.Utility:

Constructive orientation: Evaluations systems should be constructive, so thatthey help institutions to develop human resources and encourage and assist those

evaluated to provide excellent service.

Defined uses: Users and intended uses of evaluation system should be identified,so it can address appropriate questions.

Evaluator credibility: Evaluation system should be managed and executed bypersons with the necessary qualifications, skills, and authority, and evaluators

should conduct themselves professionally so that evaluation reports are respected

and used.

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Functional reporting: Reports should be clear, timely, accurate, and germane, sothat they are of practical value to the evaluatee and other appropriate audiences.

Follow-up and impact: Evaluations should be followed up, so that users andevaluatees are aided to understand the results and take appropriate actions.

Feasibility:

Practical procedures: Evaluation procedures should be planned and conductedso that they produce needed information while minimizing disruption and cost.

Political viability: Evaluation system should be developed and monitoredcollaboratively, so that all concerned parties are constructively involved in

making the system work.

Fiscal viability: Adequate time and resources should be provided for evaluationactivities, so that evaluation plans can be effectively and efficiently implemented.

Accuracy:

Defined role: The role, responsibilities, performance objectives, and neededqualifications of the evaluatee should be clearly defined, so that the evaluator can

determine valid assessment data.

Work environment: The context in which the evaluatee works should beidentified, described, and recorded, so that environmental influences and

constraints on performance can be considered in the evaluation.

Documentation of procedures: Evaluation procedures actually followed shouldbe documented, so that the evaluatees and other users can assess the actual, in

relation to intended, procedures.

Valid measurement: The measurement procedures should be chosen ordeveloped and implemented on the basis of the described role and the intended

use, so that the inferences concerning the evaluatee are valid and accurate.

Reliable measurement: Measurement procedures should be chosen or developedto assure reliability, so that the information obtained will provide consistent

indications of the performance of the evaluatee.

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Systematic data control: The information used in the evaluation should be keptsecure, and should be carefully processed and maintained, so as to ensure that the

data maintained and analyzed are the same as the data collected.

Bias control: The evaluation process should provide safeguards against bias, sothat the evaluatee's qualifications or performance are assessed fairly.

Monitoring evaluation systems: Evaluation system should be revisedperiodically and systematically, so that appropriate revisions can be made.

In summary, an evaluation system should focus on leadership styles, skills, and role

competencies identified in the research literature. By acknowledging these components and their

interaction among each other, an evaluation system can be developed to effectively assess

supervisory and administrative staff. The Personnel Evaluation Standards can be a useful tool to

guide and assess your evaluation system.

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APPENDIX A

The Role Competencies of Various Positions at Intermediate Unit

School Leaders (Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium)

Facilitate the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a vision thatis shared and supported by the school community

Knowledge Learning goals in a pluralistic society The principles of developing and implementing strategic

plans

Systems theory Information sources, data collection, and data analysis

strategies

Effective communication Effective consensus building and negotiation skills

Dispositions The educability of all

A school vision of high standards of learning Continuous school improvement The inclusion of all members of the school community Ensuring that students have the knowledge, skills, and

values needed to become successful adults

A willingness to continuously examine one's ownassumptions, beliefs, and practices

Doing the work required for high levels of personal andorganization performance

Performances The vision and mission of the school are effectively

communicated to staff, parents, students, and community

members

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The vision and mission are communicated through the useof symbols, ceremonies, stories, and similar activities

The core beliefs of the school vision are modeled for allstakeholders

The vision is developed with and among stakeholders The contributions of school community members to the

realization of the vision are recognized and celebrated

Progress toward the vision and mission is communicatedto all stakeholders

The school community is involved in school improvementefforts

The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactivities

The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactions

An implementation plan is developed in which objectivesand strategies to achieve the vision and goals are clearly

articulated

Assessment data related to student learningare used todevelop the school vision and goals

Relevant demographic data pertaining to students and theirfamilies are used in developing the school mission and

goals

Barriers to achieving the vision are identified, clarified,and addressed

Needed resources are sought and obtained to support theimplementation of the school mission and goals

Existing resources are used in support of the school visionand goals

The vision, mission, and implementation plans areregularly monitored, evaluated, and revised the vision and

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mission of the school are effectively communicated to

staff, parents, students, and community members

The vision and mission are communicated through the useof symbols, ceremonies,stories, and similar activities

The core beliefs of the school vision are modeled for allstakeholders

The vision is developed with and among stakeholders The contributions of school community members to the

realization of the vision are recognized and celebrated

Progress toward the vision and mission is communicatedto all stakeholders

The school community is involved in school improvementefforts

The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactivities

The vision shapes the educational programs, plans, andactions

An implementation plan is developed in which objectivesand strategies to achieve the vision and goals are clearly

articulated

Assessment data related to student learning are used todevelop the school vision and goals

Relevant demographic data pertaining to students and theirfamilies are used in developing the school mission and

goals

Barriers to achieving the vision are identified, clarified,and addressed

Needed resources are sought and obtained to support theimplementation of the school mission and goals

Existing resources are used in support of the school visionand goals

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The vision, mission, and implementation plans areregularly monitored, evaluated, and revised

Advocate, nurture, and sustain a school culture and instructional program conducive tostudent learning and staff professional growth

Knowledge Student growth and development Applied learning theories Applied motivational theories Curriculum design, implementation, evaluation, and

refinement

Principles of effective instruction Measurement, evaluation, and assessment strategies Diversity and its meaning for educational programs Adult learning and professional development models The change process for systems, organizations, and

individuals

The role of technology in promoting student learning andprofessional growth

School cultures Dispositions

Student learning as the fundamental purpose of schooling The proposition that all students can learn The variety of ways in which students can learn Life long learning for self and others Professional development as an integral part of school

improvement

The benefits that diversity brings to the school community A safe and supportive learning environment Preparing students to be contributing members of society

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Performances The school is organized and aligned for success Curricular, co-curricular, and extra-curricular programs are

designed, implemented, evaluated, and refined

Curriculum decisions are based on research, expertise ofteachers, and the recommendations of learned societies

The school culture and climate are assessed on a regularbasis

A variety of sources of information is used to makedecisions

Student learning is assessed using a variety oftechniques Multiple sources of information regarding performance are

used by staff and students

A variety of supervisory and evaluation models isemployed

Pupil personnel programs are developed to meet the needsof students and their families

All individuals are treated with fairness, dignity, andrespect

Professional development promotes a focus on studentlearning consistent with the school vision and goals

Students and staff feel valued and important The responsibilities and contributions of each individual

are acknowledged

Barriers to student learning are identified, clarified, andaddressed

Diversity is considered in developing learning experiences Life long learning is encouraged and modeled There is a culture of high expectations for self, student,

and staff performance

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Technologies are used in teaching and learning Student and staff accomplishments are recognized and

celebrated

Multiple opportunities to learn are available to all students Ensure management of the organization, operations, and resources for a safe, effective,

and efficient learning environment

Knowledge Theories and models of organizations and the principles of

organizational development

Operational procedures at the school and district level Principles and issues relating to school safety and security Human resources management and development Principles and issues relating to fiscal operations of school

management

Principles and issues relating to school facilities and use ofspace

Legal issues impacting school operations Current technologies that support management functions

Dispositions Making management decisions to enhance learning and

teaching

Taking risks to improve schools Trusting people and their judgments Accepting responsibility High-quality standards, expectations, and performances Involving stakeholders in management processes A safe environment

Performances Knowledge of learning, teaching, and student development

is used to inform management decisions

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Operational procedures are designed and managed tomaximize opportunities for successful learning

Emerging trends are recognized, studied, and applied asappropriate

Operational plans and procedures to achieve the vision andgoals of the school are in place

Collective bargaining and other contractual agreementsrelated to the school are effectively managed

The school plant, equipment, and support systems operatesafely, efficiently, and effectively

Time is managed to maximize attainment of organizationalgoals

Potential problems and opportunities are identified Problems are confronted and resolved in a timely manner Financial, human, and material resources are aligned to the

goals of schools

The school acts entrepreneurally to support continuousimprovement

Organizational systems are regularly monitored andmodified as needed

Stakeholders are involved in decisions affecting schools Responsibility is shared to maximize owner-ship and

accountability

Effective problem-framing and problem-solving skills areused

Effective conflict resolution skills are used Effective group-process and consensus-building skills are

used

Effective communication skills are used

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There is effective use of technology to manage schooloperations

Fiscal resources of the school are managed responsibly,efficiently, and effectively

A safe, clean, and aesthetically pleasing schoolenvironment is created and maintained

Human resource functions support the attainment of schoolgoals

Confidentiality and privacy of school records aremaintained

Collaborate with families and community members, respond to diverse communityinterests and needs, and mobilize community resources

Knowledge Emerging issues and trends that potentially impact the

school community

The conditions and dynamics of the diverse schoolcommunity

Community resources Community relations and marketing strategies and

processes

Successful models of school, family, business, community,government and higher education partnerships

Dispositions Schools operating as an integral part of the larger

community

Collaboration and communication with families Involvement of families and other stakeholders in school

decision-making processes

The proposition that diversity enriches the school Families as partners in the education of their children

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The proposition that families have the best interests oftheir children in mind

Resources of the family and community needing to bebrought to bear on the education of students

An informed public Performances

Community groups to strengthen programs and supportschool goals

Community youth family services are integrated withschool programs

Community stakeholders are treated equitably Diversity is recognized and valued Effective media relations are developed and maintained A comprehensive program of community relations is

established

Public resources and funds are used appropriately andwisely

Community collaboration is modeled for staff Opportunities for staff to develop collaborative skills are

provided

High visibility, active involvement, and communicationwith the larger community is a priority

Relationships with community leaders are identified andnurtured

Information about family and community concerns,expectations, and needs is used regularly

There is outreach to different business, religious, political,and service agencies and organizations

Credence is given to individuals and groups whose valuesand opinions may conflict

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The school and community serve one another as resources Available community resources are secured to help the

school solve problems and achieve goals

Partnerships are established with area businesses,institutions of higher education, and

Act with integrity, fairness, and in an ethical manner Knowledge

The purpose of education and the role of leadership inmodern society

Various ethical frameworks and perspectives on ethics The values of the diverse school community Professional codes of ethics The philosophy and history of education

Dispositions The ideal of the common good The principles in the Bill of Rights The right of every student to a free, quality education Bringing ethical principles to the decision-making process Subordinating ones own interest to the good of the school

community

Accepting the consequences for upholding ones principlesand actions

Using the influence of ones office constructively andproductively in the service of all students and their

families

Development of a caring school community Performances

Examine personal and professional values Demonstrate a personal and professional code of ethics

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Demonstrate values, beliefs, and attitudes that inspireothers to higher levels of performance

Serve as a role model Accept responsibility for school operations Consider the impact of ones administrative practices on

others

Use the influence of the office to enhance the educationalprogram rather than for personal gain

Treat people fairly, equitably, and with dignity and respect Protect the rights and confidentiality of studentsand staff Demonstrate appreciation for and sensitivityto the

diversity in the school community

Recognize and respect the legitimate authority of others Examine and consider the prevailing values of the diverse

school community

Expect that others in the school community willdemonstrate integrity and exercise ethical behavior

Open the school to public scrutiny Fulfill legal and contractual obligations Apply laws and procedures fairly, wisely, and

considerately

Understand, respond to, and influence the larger political, social, economic, legal, andcultural context

Knowledge Principles of representative governance that undergird the

system of American schools

The role of public education in developing andrenewing ademocratic society and an economically productive nation

The law as related to education and schooling

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The political, social, cultural and economic systems andprocesses that impact schools

Models and strategies of change and conflict resolution asapplied to the larger political, social, cultural and

economic contexts of schooling

Global issues and forces affecting teaching and learning The dynamics of policy development and advocacy under

our democratic political system

The importance of diversity and equity in a democraticsociety

Dispositions Education as a key to opportunity and social mobility Recognizing a variety of ideas, values, and cultures Importance of a continuing dialogue with other decision

makers affecting education

Actively participating in the political and policy- makingcontext in the service of education

Using legal systems to protect student rights and improvestudent opportunities

Performances The environment in which schools operate is influenced on

behalf of students and their families

Communication occurs among the school communityconcerning trends, issues, and potential changes in the

environment in which schools operate

There is ongoing dialogue with representatives of diversecommunity groups

The school community works within the framework ofpolicies, laws, and regulations enacted by local, state, and

federal authorities

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Public policy is shaped to provide quality education forstudents

Lines of communication are developed with decisionmakers outside the school community

Superintendents (American Association of School Administrators)

Leadership, values, ethics Understand and model appropriate value systems, ethics and moral

leadership

Know the role of education in a democratic society Exhibit multicultural and ethnic understanding and related behavior Adapt educational programming to the needs of diverse constituencies Balance complex community demands in the best interest of the student Scan and monitor the environment for opportunities for staff and students Respond in an ethical and skillful way to the electronic and printed news

media

Coordinate social agencies and human services to help each student growand develop as a caring, informed citizen

Policy and governance Develop procedures for working with the board of education that define

mutual expectations, working relationships and strategies for formulating

district policy for external and internal programs

Adjust local policy to state and federal requirements and constitutionalprovisions, standards and regulatory applications

Recognize and apply standards involving civil and criminal liabilities Planning, quality, and organizational problem solving

Exhibit an understanding of the school district as a system by definingprocesses for gathering, analyzing, and using data for decision making

Manage the data flow; frame and solve problems Frame, develop priorities, and formulate solutions

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Assist others to form reasoned opinions Reach logical conclusions and make quality decisions to meet internal

and external customer expectations

Plan and schedule personal and organization work Establish procedures to regulate activities and projects Delegate and empower at appropriate organizational levels Secure and allocate human and material resources Develop and manage the district budget Maintain accurate fiscal records.

Human resources management Develop a staff evaluation and development system to improve the

performance of all staff members

Select appropriate models for supervision based on adult motivationresearch

Identify alternative employee benefits packages Describe and apply the legal requirements for personnel selection,

development, retention, and dismissal

Leadership and district culture Developing a collective district vision Shape school culture and climate Provide purpose and direction for individuals and groups Demonstrate an understanding of international issues affecting education Formulate strategic plans, goals, and change efforts with staff and

community

Set priorities in the context of community, student and staff needs Serve as an articulate spokesperson for the welfare of all students in a

multicultural context

Communications and community relations Articulate district purpose and priorities to the community and mass

media

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Request and respond to community feedback Demonstrate consensus building and conflict mediation Identify, track, and deal with issues Formulate and carry out plans for internal and external communications Exhibit an understanding of school districts as political systems by

applying communication skills to strengthen community support

Align constituencies in support of district priorities Build coalitions to gain financial and programmatic support Formulate democratic strategies for referenda Relate political initiatives to the welfare of children.

Curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation Design curriculum and a strategic plan that enhance teaching and learning

in multiple contexts

Provide planning and future methods to anticipate occupational trendsand their educational implications

Identify taxonomies of instructional objectives and validation proceduresfor curricular units, using theories of cognitive development

Align and sequence curriculum Use valid and reliable performance indicators and testing procedures to

measure performance outcomes

Describe the proper use of computers and other learning and informationtechnologies

Instructional management Exhibit knowledge of instructional management by implementing a

system that includes research findings on learning and instructional

strategies, instructional time, advanced electronic technologies, and

resources to maximize student outcomes

Describe and apply research and best practice on integrating curriculumand resources for multicultural sensitivity and assessment strategies to

help all students achieve at high levels

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Administrators of Special Education (The Council of Administrators of Special Education)

Make serving and supporting exceptional children and their parents the primaryresponsibility

Strive to be proficient in current professional practice Support study and research guided by the conventions of scholarly inquire Respect the privacy of students and parents and holds as confidential information in

accordance with State/Provincial and Federal laws

Regard colleagues, parents and students with respect, courtesy, fairness, and good faith Uphold and advance the values, ethics knowledge and mission of the profession Foster and support maximum self-determination and independence on the part of

exceptional children

Utilize impartial professional judgment in evaluating the needs of exceptional childrenand their parents

Accept the responsibility to provide meaningful training experiences to colleagues,general educators, and the public

Promote the general welfare of exceptional children

Public Relations Professionals (National School Public Relations Association)

Communicate with internal and external publics Provide public relations counsel Serve as the media's liasion with the school district Promote community's input in budget making process & develops budget / bond issue

campaigns and publications

Develop communication plans of how district will reach its internal and external publicsand how the district will deal with the media in a crisis

Conduct formal and informal research to determine public opinion and attitude as a basisfor planning and action

Promote the district's strengths / achievements and its solutions to problems Publicize student / staff achievement and develop staff and retirement recognition

programs

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Maintain extensive background files and the district's historical and budget passagerecords and answers requests for information

Provide public relations training to staff and PTA's in areas such as talking to the media,communicating in a crisis

Serve as the district's liaison with community groups and develops ways to bring thecommunity into the schools

School Social Work Personnel (National Social Workers Association)

Work collaboratively to mobilize the resources of local education agencies to meet theneeds of children and families

Develop and provide training and educational programs that address the goals andmission of the educational institution

Organize their time, energies, and work loads to fulfill their responsibilities andcomplete assignments with due consideration of the priorities among their various

responsibilities

Maintain accurate data that are relevant to the planning, management, and evaluation ofthe school social work program

Identify individual children and target populations in need of services through a processof needs assessment that includes planned consultation with personnel of the localeducation agency, community representatives, and children and their families

Know how to use objective measures and shall integrate then into their evaluation andsubsequent development of reports

Develop and implement a plan of intervention that will enhance children's ability tobenefit from their educational experience

Identify areas of need that are not being addresses by the local education agency andcommunity and work to create those services

Provide consultation to personnel of the local education agency, members of the schoolboards, and representatives of the community to promote understanding and the effective

utilization of school social work services

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Ensure that children and their families are provided services within the context ofmulticultural understanding and sensitivities that enhance the families' support of the

children's learning experiences

Empower children and their families to gain access to and effectively use formal andinformal community resources

Maintain adequate safeguards for the privacy and confidentiality of information Use mediation and conflict resolution strategies to resolve children's educational

problems

Advocate for children and their families in a variety of situations

School Business Administrators (Association of School Business Officials)

Budgeting and financial planning Budget compilation, in coordination with educational planning Long-term fiscal planning Receipt estimates Budget control Fiscal relationships with other governmental units

Purchasing and supply management Official purchasing agent Purchase supplies & equipment Stock requisition Standards and specifications Purchase bids & contracts Inventory control

Plant planning and construction Design, construction, and equipment of plant Assist in establishment of educational and safety standards for sites,

buildings, and equipment

Projections of facility needs Contracts management

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School-community relations Personnel management

Records Supervision of noninstructional staff Relationship to instructional staff

In-service training Operation and maintenance of plant

Policies, standards, and frequency of work Scheduling and allocation of funds and manpower Inspection and evaluation of service Operating of related school-community facilities Protection of plant and property Repairs and upkeep of grounds

Transportation Policies, rules, regulations, and procedures Contract versus district owned equipment Routing and scheduling Inspection and maintenance Staff supervision and training

Food services Policies, rules, regulations, and procedures Staffing and supervision Menus, prices, portions Purchasing

Accounting and reporting General, capital reserve, trust, and construction funds Internal accounts Student activity funds Voucher and payroll preparation Attendance accounting

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Government tax and pension accounting Cost accounting Local, state, and federal financial and statistical reports

Office management

Educational Communications and Technology Administrators (Collaborative for Technology

Standards for School Administrators)

Inspire the development of a shared vision for comprehensive integration of technologyand foster an environment and culture conducive to the realization of that vision

Facilitate the development of the vision for technology shared by allstakeholders and communicate it widely

Develop, implement, and monitor a dynamic, long-range, and systemictechnology plan that supports the vision

Maintain cohesion and momentum within the school community to reachthe shared vision

Foster and nurture a culture of responsible risk-taking that promotescontinuous innovation in technology

Use data to drive leadership decisions Advocate for research-based best practices in all uses of technology

Ensure that curricular design, instructional strategies, and learning environmentsintegrate appropriate technologies to maximize learning and teaching

Identify, use, and evaluate appropriate technologies to enhance andsupport curriculum and instruction that lead to high levels of student

achievement

Facilitate and support collaborative technology-enriched learningenvironments that are conducive to innovation

Provide for the use of technology to meet the individual needs of learnersin a student-centered learning environment

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Facilitate the use of technologies to guide and support instructionalmethods that promote higher-level thinking, decision-making, and

problem-solving skills

Assure that quality professional development opportunities exist forlearning and teaching with technology

Apply technology to enhance their professional practice and to increase their ownproductivity and that of others.

Use technology to facilitate change for organizational improvement Model the routine, intentional, and effective use of technology Use technology resources to engage in sustained, job-related professional

development

Employ technology for communication and collaboration among peers,staff, parents, and the larger community

Provide direction to integrate technology tools into productive learning andadministrative systems

Develop, implement, and monitor policies and guidelines to ensurecompatibility of technologies

Allocate financial and human resources to ensure full implementation ofthe technology plan

Integrate strategic plans, technology plans, other improvement plans, andpolicies to align efforts and leverage resources

Design policies and procedures to drive continuous system improvementsand to support technology replacement cycles

Use technology to facilitate a comprehensive system of effective assessment andevaluation

Use technology to collect and analyze data, interpret results, andcommunicate findings to improve instructional practice and student

learning

Assess staff knowledge, skills, and performance in using technology anduse results to facilitate quality professional development and inform

personnel decisions

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Use technology to assess and evaluate managerial and operationalsystems

Assess and evaluate, using multiple methods, appropriate uses oftechnology resources for learning, communication, and productivity

Understand the social, legal, and ethical issues related to technology and apply thatunderstanding in practice

Ensure equity of access to technology resources that enable and empowerall learners

Identify, communicate, model, and enforce social, legal, and ethicalpractices related to technology use

Promote and enforce security and online safety related to the use oftechnology

Promote and enforce environmentally safe and healthy practices in theuse of technology

School Personnel Administrators (American Association for School Personnel Administrators)

Have clear understanding of goals, objectives, and processes of the school system andthe role they play in accomplishing those ends

Search for the most effective operational alternatives of action that can be implemented Conduct personnel operations in a manner that provides for effective and friendly

employee relationships and contribute to individual motivation and morale

Ensure systematic dissemination of information to the staff and public to enhance theteam effort and to facilitate efficient work performance

Design well-developed system of personnel accounting and research to make soundtechnology to enhance their professional practice and to increase their own productivity

and that of others

Provide direction to integrate technology tools into productive learning andadministrative systems Use technology to facilitate a comprehensive system of effective assessment and

projections for current and future employment needs

Provide present as well as potential employees with information n available positionsand provide them the opportunity to compete for vacancies

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Ensure that the application form requests information necessary to facilitate screening,contributes to sound decision making on recommendations for appointment, and is in

conformity with local, state, and federal laws and regulations

Select staff on carefully planned program of investigation, screening, appointment, andfollow-up support

Attempt to meet the needs of the educational program, implement affirmative actionplans, provide balanced staffing, and meet the desires of individual employees

Acquaint new employees with their responsibilities toward the student, school, andcommunity, and acquaint them with the resources in the school system and community

Assure that staff are recognized for excellence and promoted on the basis ofcompetency, performance, qualifications, fitness for the job, and probability of future

growth and development

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