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Course Name: Cognitive Sciences, Psychology and Other Related Sciences in Education[PPB2014]Topic 3: Child Development: Infancy and Toddlerhood

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1 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENTIn this topic, we shall look into the followings:

1. Physical Growth and Development

2. The Brain3. Motor Development4. Sensory and Perceptual Development

1.1 Physical Growth and Development

In physical growth and development, we shall look into the followings:

1. Principle of Development2. Height and Weight3. Infant Body Cycle4. Nutrition

Principle of DevelopmentNormally, when an artist draws a figure of a person, he will start to sketch the face before movingon to the body, arms and legs.

In drawing the face, the usual procedure would be to start with the nose as it can serve as thecenter point of the face. From the nose, the artist will then proceed with the eyes, mouth and therest of the face.

Notice how the artist starts to draw from the head to toe, and while drawing the face, he drawsfrom the center before proceeding outwards.

In human development, there are similar principles that guide our growth and development. Muchlike the principles that guide the artist in drawing a human figure, our development follows two

principles of development, before birth and also after:

Cephalocaudal DevelopmentIn Greek, Cephalocaudal means "from head to tail". Our development follows thisprinciple in developing the upper part of the body first before proceeding to the lowerparts (i.e. from head to toe).

When you were first born, your head was proportionately larger than your body becauseit followed the Cephalocaudal principle of development. As you grew older, the lowerparts of your body caught up in size.

Proximodistal DevelopmentProximodistalmeans "near to far" in Latin. This principle applies to our development in

the sense that we grow from the center outward.

Remember how the artist draws the nose first before going on to the eyes and mouth?Our development starts from the trunk, and then our head and body, the arms and thelegs will begin to take shape.


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Apart from following the two principles, there are also patterns in our development.

From birth to becoming a one year old, we experience a very rapid growth. Our entire body willdevelop fast after year one, but the speed of our development will decrease as we grow older.

Figure 1: Rapid Growth From Birth to One Year Old

Another pattern that our development follows is that it will have a linear and steady annualincrements after age one.

After age one, our development will become consistent, and we will notice that our growthincreases proportionatelywith our age. Our growth does not take place suddenly or abruptly atone time, and then stops for a period of time before suddenly becoming active again. As thegraph shows, our development is very systematic.

Boys and girls have little difference in size and growth rates during infancy and childhood.

Different body parts grow at different rates. For example, the head will start to grow big and fastwhile the rest of the body will grow little by little. When the other body parts begin to grow rapidly,the head grows little by little to finally have a balance in size between the parts of the body.

Figure 2: Systematic Development After One Year Old


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Height and WeightAs infants, our height increases dramatically compared to our weight. Children's growth seems tooccur in spurts, often after long periods of no growth.

As a young child grows, his or her body shape and proportions change: the head becomesproportionately smaller until he or she reaches his or her full height.

"Proportionately smaller" does not mean that our head will shrink to match the size of our body,but instead it grows less rapidly while our body grows more rapidly.

During infancy and toddlerhood, we grow faster than we will ever grow, especially in the first fewmonths. In the fifth month, our weight would have doubled from 7 pounds at birth to about 15pounds. After a year, we would weigh about 22 pounds.

By our second birthday, we would already weigh four times as heavy as we were at birth!

In terms of height, we develop by about ten to twelve inches in the first year to approximately 30inches tall. The second year would see an increase of about five inches, making an average two

year old about three feet tall. By the end of the third year, we would be taller by another three tofour inches.

Our physical growth in terms of height is very rapid from the day we are born till we are aboutthree years old. The development during this period is fast and in great quantity, but the speed ofgrowth decreases as we grow older.

In terms of weight, our development is consistent. Notice how our weight increases as we grow.We do not grow to be heavy in one year and become lighter in the next, but instead our weightgradually increases.

Infant Body Cycle

Most of us, under normal circumstances, would stay awake during the day to do our dailyactivities such as work, class and play, while the night is filled with restful sleep. Or, if you areused to waking up at six in the morning to the sound of your alarm clock, chances are that youwould find yourself waking up at about that same time even if you forgot to time it the nightbefore.

It seems that even babies know the time, even though they obviously cannot know how to look ata watch. How do you think this is possible?

Babies have an internal biological clock that tells them when to sleep, wake or engage inactivities. This state of arousal, or alertness in an infant, seems to be inborn.

Each baby shares similar states of arousal, but the arousal patterns are different from one baby

to the other. For example, the average sleeping duration for a baby is 16 hours, but some mightsleep for only 11 hours and some for as long as 21 hours.

Most babies will sleep and wake up every two to three hours, day and night. They have about sixto eight periods of sleep initially. After about three months, the babies become more wakefulduring the late afternoons and early evenings and start to sleep through the night.

While awake, babies would portray different activities. Some would stick their tongue in and outand some would smile often. Some babies are more active than others because of theirtemperamental differences.


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NutritionUntil the age of four to six months, breast milk or formulated milk is the only food necessary forus. From either of these, we can get vitamins and minerals necessary for a continuous healthyliving. After four months, however, we need supplementary iron to prevent anemia.

Breast milk is almost always the better choice. It contains a complete source of nutrients for thefirst four to six months. Breast milk is more digestible than cow's milk and is less likely to produceallergic reactions in babies. Moreover, because of the different manner in which babies suck inbreast milk compared to the bottle for formula milk, babies who are breastfed tend to have betterteeth and jaws. Also, breast milk will provide a better protection from diseases such as diarrhea,respiratory infections and Otis media. Cow's milk also has less iron in it to meet the need ofinfants in the early months, unless it is supplemented with extra iron.

Other than physiological benefits, breastfeeding also helps the formation of mother-infantbond.However, for healthy development of the infant, the quality of the relationship between parentsand the infant is more important than the feeding method.

Babies also have a preference for fruit juice, but it is only recommended after the babies are four

to six months old. Excessive feed of orange juice to children may interfere with the children'sappetite for higher calorie and more nutritious food. Not more than four to eight ounces of orangejuice are recommended for two to three year old children.

As for solid food, we may only have it after we have grown enough teeth. And of course, while westill have teeth.

1.2 The Brain

In this topic, we shall look at the brains structure and its components at macro and micro levels.

1. Macro Level

Looking at the macro level will involve looking at the physical structure of the brain ingeneral, without going into much detail. At this level, the brain is made up of:

i. The HindbrainHindbrain is at the back of the brain, where the cerebellum that maintains bodybalance and motor coordination and development is located.

Our ability to walk straight and balance ourselves is controlled by the hindbrain.The hindbrain is also responsible in enabling us to use our arms, legs and ourother motors when doing any tasks involving our body movements.

ii. The ForebrainThe forebrain, which is the largest part of the brain, is located at the top of thebrain, covering the 2 other parts like a cap. It consists of a structure called thecerebrum that has a critical part in perception, language and thinking.

When we think, we will mostly use our forebrain. The same goes when we useand learn a language. The forebrain is also responsible for our perception suchas our sense of touch, sight and hearing.

As you have been told, an important part of the forebrain is the cerebrum. Thecerebrum consists of parts called lobes. The occipital lobe coordinates vision,while the temporal lobe handles hearing. Body sensations are handled by the


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parietal lobe while voluntary muscles and intelligence are governed by the frontallobe.

iii. The MidbrainThe midbrain is located between the hindbrain and the forebrain, where many

fibers can be found connecting the two parts of the brain. The midbrain's specificfunction is to convey what we hear and see to the brain to be processed.

The midbrain serves as a "collector" of information from the outside world. Wheninformation is first received, the midbrain gathers it before sorting and sending itto the appropriate parts of the brain to be processed.

Figure 3: Macro Level Components of a Brain

2. Micro LevelWhen looking at the brain at the micro level, we will begin to analyze what lies beneaththe brain structure.

Figure 4: Micro Level Components of a Brain

At this level, the brain is made of:

i. Neuronsii. Dendriteiii. Axoniv. Myelin sheath


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Neurons are nerve cells that send and receive information in our brain. A neuron consistsof a nucleus and a cell body. There are about 100 billion neurons in our brain, and theycan be regarded as a small complex computer within our brain. Neurons have a nucleusand a cell body. On the cell body, there are many connecting parts that lead to otherparts of the brain. These parts are dendrites and axons. Dendrite is the part that receives

information and transports it to the cell body, while the axon carries the information awayto various parts of the brain. A layer of fat cells, the myelin sheath, protects the axon,enabling the information to travel faster.

Figure 5: Neurons

At birth, a child's brain is about 25 percent of an adult's brain in terms of weight. By thesecond birthday, it is about 75 percent of its adult weight. The development of the braindoes not follow a uniformed process, which means some parts of the brain will matureearlier and some later. The neurons in the brain await experience to further develop byproducing new connections as needed by the brain. The information from theenvironment through sights, sounds, smells, touches, language and eye contact will help

the neurons to establish new connections within the brain.

Figure 6:The Development of Neurons

The major difference in our brain's development is that our experience plays a moreprominent role in developing it rather than our age. We might grow old in a cave, but becausethere is so little information that we receive throughout our lifetime, our brain will develop veryslowly.


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1.3 Motor Development

Some play sports, some dance and some just laze around the television exercising their fingerson the remote control. Some climb rocks, some swim and some sit behind a personal computerand use their muscles to move the mouse and type at the keyboard. All these movements requireus to use our muscles.

Motor development concerns the development of the movements of body parts of a human beingsuch as the arms and legs, mouth and eyes.

Motor development also takes place in sequence, from the center to the outer parts and from theupper to the lower parts of the body, following the two principles of development.

Rhythmic motor behavior in an infant concerns the actions of the infant that are done repetitively.For example, an infant drops an object from the tall chair he/she is sitting on and cries. Theparent would then pick the object up and return it to the child, only to discover the object isdropped again later. Other examples would include the swaying of the legs back and forth andnodding the head over and over again. This behavior is an indication that the infant is either

experimenting with his or her own body parts or using the body parts to experiment on otherobjects.

Such exercises are necessary for infants to practice their motor skills and also to add newexperiences to encourage learning. The more infants use a skill through rhythmic behavior, thebetter they will be at using the skill. As infants grow more adept at a skill, they will be more able toconsciously control it.

Even now, if we practice a skill over and over, we will find that the skill will improve. For example,if we take up badminton, we would hopefully be able to hit a shuttlecock using a single strokeforward. After more practice sessions, we will find that we can do a lob, drive, smash and thebackhand.

There are two types of motor skills, which are:

1. Gross Motor Skills2. Fine Motor Skills

Gross Motor SkillsAs our development is systematic, our ability to use our arms, legs and bodies increases, as wegrow older. When we were mere infants, we had so little control over our movements. Most of ouractions were instinctive, guided by our natural reflexes. Before we were able to have full controlover the use of our fingers, we first gain the ability to use our arms and legs.

Gross motor skills involve the coordination of large muscles such as the coordination of musclesthat move the arms and legs. When we were first born, we would not be able to really coordinateour arms or chest, but within the first month we should be able to lift our head from a proneposition. At three to four months, our parents can notice our ability to rollover. We can supportsome of our weight come month four or five, and at about six months of age, we can already sitwithout any form of support. Crawling and standing without support will be achievable in theseventh or eighth month. After further development in motor skills, we will be able to pullourselves up to stand, and by the tenth month or so we can already walk by using furniture as asupport.


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We can walk without any assistance after a period of about one year after birth.

All babies share the same sequence of development of their motor skills, and it is important tonote that with each accomplishment of their motor skills comes a greater degree of

independence. By the age of 13 months to 18 months (we would be toddlers by now), a child canalready walk fast or run stiffly, play and kick a ball without falling and jump up and down on aparticular spot.

Figure 7: The Development of Gross-Motor Skills

Fine Motor SkillsTake a look at your hands. Try to rotate your wrist in a circular motion. Next, close your fingersinto a fist, and then raise your fingers one by one, starting from the thumb. After that, shrug bothyour shoulders (try also raising your left shoulder up, and then your right).

One of the purposes of the above exercise is to loosen up your muscles and freshen you up.However, more importantly, the exercise is to give you a first hand experience on the use of yourfine motor skills.

Fine motor skills involve more complex movements at a finer level, such as the movement offingers in reaching and grasping. When we were infants, we would not be able to fully control ourfine motor skills. It is during the first two years of life that we develop the skills, expressingmovements in the shoulder and elbows, and more coordinated finger movements. Only laterwould we be able to rotate our hands and wrist, and also the coordination of the thumb and theforefinger. Our hand and eye coordination will grow more mature as we grow older, and this willbe reflected by the development of our fine motor skills. In other words, we would be able tomatch what we see with what we do in a more precise and exact manner. Moving frominstinctively grasping our mothers' fingers when close enough, we would then be able to actuallyfollow the movements of our mothers' fingers and attempt to grasp them. Or, we could hold anobject in our hands, and turn it up, down, left and right with our more advanced wrist movementsto examine the object.

As much as we are able to move every muscle in our body, the muscle coordination is achievedby a well-developed perception.


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Figure 8: Development Progress in the First Two Years

1.4 Sensory and Perceptual Development

In this topic, we shall look into the followings:

1. Visual Perceptions2. Other Senses

Visual PerceptionsImagine that you are visiting a haunted house, and it is now nighttime. The wind blows softlyoutside, but you can feel the cool breeze touches you as if the walls of the house do not exist. Asyou try to feel comfortable in the house, you feel the hair on your neck raises, a tinglingsensation. Though you cannot see anybody else with you in the house, you are sure of anotherpresence somewhere near you. In trying to ignore the unnatural fear, you take out a piece ofsandwich from your food pack and take a bite of it. The taste hits you as sour

A weird and evil laugh startles you. You are sure that is what you heard! Then your nose picks upa stench, a horrible smell, and it becomes stronger with each passing second.

You catch a glimpse of a dark standing being in the corner of your eye, and you freeze in fear. Asyour sandwich drops to the floor, you notice a set of gleaming white fangs in the split of a secondbefore you feel an immense pain at the side of your neck.

The brief vampire story is obviously written for your enjoyment, but notice the cold you feel andthe fear; the taste of the sandwich, the laughter you hear, the horrible smell, the white fangs yousee and finally the pain in your neck. In reality, and in the study of human development, all these

are some examples of the experiences that we can get from our environment, and theseexperiences are taken in by our perception as information. Some of the information that youreceive is new, and some you already know. When the information is processed, the resultinginterpretation is called perception.

In studying the sensory and perceptual development in infants, one studies what infants sensefrom their environment, and what their interpretation, or perception, will be, and the stages of theirsensory development.


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People once thought that an infant's visual perception is full of confusing and exploding images ofthe world. However, an infant's vision is more complex that what was thought.

A newborn's vision is only 20 to 30 times lower than the vision of the average adult, and at firsthis/her perception would not be able to process the information on the colors that he/she sees

until two months of age. After six months from birth, their vision gets better to 20/100 on theSnellan chart (the chart that one looks at when sitting for an eye examination), and graduallyimproves to enable an infant's vision to match that of an adult's by his/her first birthday.


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Figure 9: The Snellan Chart

Infants also have visual preferences: infants prefer to look at patterns than colors.

Robert Fantz (1963) discovered that an infant prefers to look at a face, a piece of printed matteror a bull's eye longer than looking at red, yellow or white discs. This ability to differentiate andgive preference alone reflects that a baby's vision is not of a confused nature.

However, size constancy will not be available to an infant's perception in the early stage, meaningthat a child would not be able to understand that the farther and smaller a visible object seems tobe, it still retains its original size. Newborns would initially perceive that a faraway object isphysically smaller than the object nearer to him/her. Size constancy would only appear after fivemonths, and would gradually improve through 10 to 11 months of age. Size constancy helps

infants to perceive their world as being stable rather than chaotic or unstable.

Young infants can also perceive depth at an early age, but cannot perceive the danger of falling.An experiment dubbed as the "visual cliff" by Walk and Gibson (1961) demonstrates that a veryyoung infant put face down directly on the glass above the "cliff" shows a reduction in heartbeatrate. Slower heartbeat indicates interest, not fear that is often indicated by a faster heartbeat. Thedevelopment in the perception of depth will be enhanced through the infants' experiences.

Infants can also have visual expectations if the perceived object has a pattern. For example, aninfant about 4 months of age looking at a bouncing ball will almost immediately know where tolook for the ball when it stops even if he or she does not look at it until the ball stops bouncing.This is because the infant can perceive the pattern of the direction the ball is taking.

Infants have very complicated sensors and perception. As infants grow older, their sensory andperceptual development increases in quality, and they will be able to synthesize or processinformation more thoroughly and effectively. As we become adults, we can even choose our ownangle of perception, or perspective, when looking at an object and manipulate the information wereceive creatively to come up with something totally new.


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Other SensesWe have other sensors besides our eyes. We have our noses, mouths, tongue, ears and skin.These other sensors help us in our ability to smell, taste, hear and feel physical sensations suchas pain, heat and cold.

i. HearingAn infant can immediately hear after birth, but the stimulus must be louder than requiredby adults for an infant to be able to hear it. An infant is also born with the ability torespond to the sounds of any human language. Infants would always prefer to hear theirmother's voice than any other woman's, or the language of her mother than any otherlanguage. An interesting developmental stage occurs during the first year, when an infantcan discriminate phonetic contrasts from languages they have never heard before.

Very young infants are known to be able to differentiate even subtle phonetic sounds,such as baand ga.

ii. Touch and PainNewborns will respond to touch, but whether very young infants can coordinate touch

with visual perception is yet to be determined. However, one year old and even sixmonths old infants can coordinate the sense of touch with their visuals.

This means that young infants would be able to look at an object or a person andcoordinate his hands to touch the object or person when they are old enough, but beforereaching the age, the existence of this ability is still questionable.

Newborns can also feel pain, as male newborns who are circumcised on day three wouldcry out intensely. However, their ability to cope with the pain is remarkable, becausewithin several minutes after circumcision they would interact in a normal manner withtheir nurse or mother. Still, the time recently circumcised newborns spent on sleepingwould increase to cope with the pain.

iii. SmellFromthe expressions on their face, infants are found to be able to discriminate the smellthat they like and the ones that they do not like. Infants show a liking to their ownmother's breast pad when they are six days old, but they did not show any preferencewhen they were two days old. This is an indication that infants need several days to beable to recognize a certain scent or odor.

iv. TasteSimilar to their response to smell, infants display like or dislike through their facialexpression concerning taste. Infants would smile and laugh at something they like, andthey would cry or frown at something they do not.

At about four months, infants display a preference for salty tastes, which they disliked.


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2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT


1. Approaches in Cognitive Development2. Language Development

2.1 Approaches in Cognitive Development

There are four different approaches in cognitive development, which are:

1. Behaviorist Approach2. Piagetian Approach3. Psychometric Approach4. Information-Processing Approach

Behaviorist ApproachYou are most likely to have an idol. He or she can be either from your family members, peers andeven pop artists. When you fancy these people, somehow, it affects and influences you to followthe way they dress up or the way they talk. For example, the Late Lady Diana's hair fashion usedto be a trend. This scenario applies to infants as well. Infants learn from what they see, touch,taste, smell and hear. These are what we call classical conditioning and operant conditioning,showing the learning development of infants and toddlers.

Let us study the behaviorist approach by looking at infants of two hours old. These infants havebeen classically conditioned to turn their heads and suck if their foreheads are stroked. At thesame time they are given a bottle of sweetened water.

Newborns learn to suck when they hear a tone like buzzer. This is an example of Babinski reflex:

infants turn their heads and open their mouths; infants move their arms instead of clasping thehands; infants widen and constrict their pupils; infants blink; infants show a change in heart rate.One demonstration of classical conditioning on human beings was done to an 11-month-old babyknown as "Little Albert". In this demonstration, Little Albert was identified to have an interest infurry animals. He was brought to a laboratory. He then saw a furry white rat and was about tograsp the rat when he heard a loud noise. This noise frightened him and now he is scared of rats,and automatically the fear generalized to rabbits, dogs, Santa Claus mask and other furry whiteobjects. Based on the demonstration, we can conclude that a baby can be conditioned to fearthings that he or she was not afraid of before.

Moreover, if the conditioning encourages neonates to perform some kind of behavior they canalready do, they can learn by operant conditioning.

In addition, the combination of both classical and operant conditioning can produce complexbehaviors. This is proven by a study on one to twenty weeks old infants. In this study the infantswould turn their heads and receive milk when they hear a sound of the bell. However, babies whodo not learn this by operant conditioning will learn to turn their heads through classicalconditioning. For example, instead of waiting for the infants to turn their head, milk should bemade to appear in a location where they need to turn their head, right after sounding the bell.

By four to six weeks, all babies learn to turn their heads when hearing the bell and learn othernew things such as differentiating the bell from a buzzer.


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At about the age of three months, the babies learn to turn to whichever side where food is given,as signaled by the bell.

When they reach the age of four months, they learn to reverse their responses to a bell.

Piagetian ApproachPiagetian approach emphasizes the qualitative changes of cognitive functions. In other words, itfocuses on evolution of the mental structures and how infants and toddlers adapt what they thinkto their environment.

Piaget called the first of the four stages of cognitive development the sensorimotor stage.

This stage occurs from birth to the age of two. It involves learning to respond through motoractivity to the various stimulusthat are presented to the senses. The task at this stage is learningto coordinate sensorimotor sequences to solve problems. There are six sub stages in thesensorimotor periods that have been divided from month to month.

Figure 10: Six Substages of Piagets Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development


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Habituation is a type of learning that involves repeated exposure to a stimulus like sound or sight.This results in a reduced response to that stimulus. For example, let us look at a study of

habituation in newborns using repeated stimulus, which is sound and visual pattern. Theresearcher monitors the response in terms of heart rate, sucking, eye movements, and brainactivity. When the stimulus first presented, the baby who has been sucking typically stops.However, after the same visual has been presented again and again, it loses novelty for the babyto continue sucking. This is what we call habituation. Habituation becomes accurate during thefirst three months of life.

On the other hand, dishabituation is an infant's renewed interest in stimulus. It results in theincrease in response to new stimulus. Here, a new sight or sound will capture the infant'sattention.

2.2 Language Development

Language development can be divided into three stages, which are:

1. Sequences of Early Language Development2. Characteristics of Early Speech3. Genetic and Environmental Influences

Sequences of Early Language DevelopmentBelow are the sequences of early language development:

i. Early VocalizationInfant is a Latin word, which means "without speech". Before infants say their first word,they make sounds that progress from crying to cooing and babbling, imitation and

elaboration. This process is known as the pre-linguistic speech. Here, infants learn theability to recognize and understand speech sounds and to use meaningful gestures. Thisis the stage during which the early vocalization begins.

The graphic below shows the language milestones from birth to 3 years.


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Figure 11: Language Milestones from Birth to 3 Years

You must be wondering why a baby cries all the time. This is because crying is a baby'sonly way of communication. To strangers, all cries may sound the same, but the baby'sparents can tell the cry for food from the cry of pain. There are different pitches, patterns,and intensities for hunger, comfort or anger. For example, infants cry when they arehungry.

Now we will move to the second early vocalization that is cooing. Cooing involves makingsqueals, gurgles, and vowel sounds like "ahhh". This happens between the age of sixweeks to three months. When an infant is about three months old, he or she will begin toplay with speech sounds. For example, when a mother says "fish", the infant will say"pish".

Babbling is repeating consonant-vowel strings. For example "ma-ma-ma". This happensbetween six and ten months of age that is often mistaken for an infant's first word.Babbling is not a real language because it has no meaning for the infant.

The language development of infants with normal hearing and speech continues withaccidental imitation of language sounds. They do so by hearing and then making thesounds. At about the age of nine to ten months, infants can imitate sounds withoutunderstanding them. Once they have a repertoire of sounds, they string them together inpatterns that sound like language but have no meaning.

However, before infants can express ideas in words, parents will get used to readinginfants' emotion through the sounds they make.

ii. Recognizing Language SoundsInfants can differentiate speech sounds like "ba" from "pa" since in the womb. Forexample, let us look at one study in which two groups of Parisian women in their ninthmonth of pregnancy sang different nursery rhymes. A month later, the researcher playedrecordings of both rhymes close to the women's abdomen. The fetuses' heart ratesslowed when the rhyme the mother usually sang was played, but not for the other rhyme,which was unfamiliar to the fetuses. Since the voice on the tape was not their mother'svoice, it seemed here that the fetuses' were responding to the linguistic sounds that theyhad heard their mother used.


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This suggests that hearing the mother's own language before birth may "pre-tune" aninfant's ear to pick up linguistic sounds.

Infants have learned the basic sounds of the infants' own language before six months of

age. This is due to the recognition of metrical patterns that seems to develop, as infantsbecome more familiar with their own language. For example, "da" and "ga".

But at the age of nine months, infants listen to longer words with the stress pattern. Theyalso lose the ability to differentiate sounds that are not part of the language they hearspoken. For example, Japanese infants could not tell the difference between "ra" and "la"which do not exist in Japanese language.

iii. GesturesLet us look at the graphic given. The boy is pointing to an object, sometimes making anoise to show that he wants it. This is what we call gestures. Gesturing occurs betweenthe ages of nine to twelve months. Infants learn few conventional social gestures likewaving bye-bye and nodding their heads, which means yes.

Figure 12: Example of Gesture

Meanwhile at about 13 months, more elaboration on representational gestures is used.For example, infants would hold up their arms to show that they want to be picked up.

Another example is an infant would hold an empty cup to his mouth showing that hewants to drink.

The symbolic gesture is also used to show that infants understand things. For example,

an infant would blow his or her drinks to show that the drink is hot. This often appears justbefore or about the same time as when infants say their first words. It shows that infantsunderstand that things and ideas have names. This also shows that symbols can refer tospecific everyday objects, events, desires and conditions like blowing a "hot" object.

Gestures usually appear before infants can master their first 25 words. In fact, infants willstop gesturing when they can use words to express their ideas.


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iv. First WordsThe next sequence of early language development is the first word. Here, the linguisticspeeches, which are the verbal expression, that convey meaning begin at the age of tento fourteen months. The infant's first word maybe "mama" and "dada" but at the same

time "da" may mean, "I want that". This is what we call a holophrase that expresses acomplete thought in a single word.

Infants first understand lots of words at about age nine or ten months. They start withtheir own name and the word "no". By thirteen months, infants understand that a wordstands for a specific thing and quickly learn the meaning of new words. Vocabularycontinues to grow and only lasts until eighteen months of age. The most common earlywords are names of things like "bow wow" for dogs and other action words like "bye-bye".Sometimes between sixteen and twenty four months, a naming explosion occurs wheretoddlers can say from fifty words to about four hundred a week.

v. Sentences, Grammar and SyntaxWhen toddlers start putting two words together, they arrive to the stage called linguisticbreakthrough. This usually happens at the age of 18 to 24 months. The first sentence

usually deals with everyday events, things, people, or activities. For example "Lisa fall".This speech is called telegraphic because like most telegrams, it includes only certainwords. For example, when an infant says "Damma deep", she means "Grandma issweeping the floor".

The first sentence also usually consists of nouns, verbs and adjectives. Tense and caseendings, articles, and prepositions are missing. For example, "Lisa fall". This goes withsubjects or verbs like "Go bye-bye" and "Mama sock". When the speech is morecomplex, infants may string two words together. For example "Adam eat food".

The next aspect is syntax, which means the rules for putting sentences together in alanguage. Articles (a, the), prepositions (in, on), conjunction (and, but) and other forms ofverbs are also used. For example, at two years and ten months, an infant can produce

clear and grammatical sentences. However, in a frustrating situation, the infant mightproduce a sentence like "I can't get this glove on my hand".

Characteristics of Early Speech"Mama!"

This may be the first word that infants would speak. An infant's first words usually revolve aroundthe calling of important people like their mother and father; familiar animals like cat, vehicles,toys, food, body parts or greetings like "hello". These are the first words of infant's 50 years ago,and infants today are still using them. This is due to the limited cognitive or linguistic skills bywhich only one word comes out instead of the whole sentence.

There are four characteristics of early speech. The first one is to understand the grammaticalrelationships between words in sentences, which an infant cannot yet express.

For example, a girl understands that a dog is chasing a cat, but she cannot explain or think ofwords to express the complete action. She then elaborates as "Puppy chase" rather than "Puppychase kitty".


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Her uncle gave a toy car to a 13-month-old Anna. She called the car "koo-ka". One day her fathercame home with a gift saying "Look, here's a little car for you". The girl shook her head and ran toget the car given by the uncle and said "koo-ka". To Anna, the car that was given to her by heruncle was the only thing to be called a "car".

This is the second characteristic of early speech: an under extending of word meanings. In theexample of Anna, she under extended the word "car" by limiting its meaning to a single object.

Ironically, overextending word meanings is also a characteristic of early speech. For example, ayoung boy jumps when he sees a gray-haired man and shouts "Grandpa". He is overextending aword here. He thinks that because his grandfather has gray hair, all gray-haired men can becalled "Grandpa".

Over-regularity of rules is the fourth characteristic of early speech. Toddlers apply some ruleswithout knowing that certain rules have exception. For example "mouse" instead of "mice", "Ithinked" rather than "I thought".

However, once the children learn the grammatical rules for plural and past tense, they will usethem all the time.

Below is the five stages of a child's language development based on Mean Length of Utterance(MLU). This is a good index of a child's language maturity.

Figure 13: MLUs 5 Stages of Childs Language DevelopmentGenetic and Environmental InfluencesWe shall look into look at genetic and environmental influences on infants' language

development.

a. Genetic InfluencesThe genetic influence is noticeable in moderate positive correlation between parents'intelligence and the rate at which their biological children develop communication skillsduring the first year. In other words, parents' intelligence influences their biologicalchildren's ability to communicate.


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According to Hardy-Brown, Plomin, & DeFries, the correlation only exists betweenchildren and their biological mothers. In case of adoption, the correlation does not existbetween children and their adoptive parents.

b. Environmental Influences

Social interaction is one of the environmental influences in infants' languagedevelopment. It concerns how adults talk with infants and how often they talk.

Social interaction is crucial because at this stage, infants develop their language skills bypicking up new words, the nuances of speech and correcting wrong assumptions.Therefore, the more parents talk to their infants, the sooner the infants develop theirlanguage skills.

In addition, language requires practice. Therefore, the more parents talk to their infants,the sooner the infants develop their language skills. Research has been done on twinsand single-born children and the findings show that twins speak later than single-bornchildren. This is because mothers of twins speak less frequently to each child and haveshorter conversations. This concludes that, interaction between children and adult ismore influential than interaction between children and their siblings of their age.

After looking at the environmental influences, we will now look at the nature vs. nurture debate.Motherese is a kind of speech often used by mothers and other adults to talk to babies. It involvesa high pitch than normal and with simple worlds and sentences. In this debate, one should beaware of the interrelations between environmental and hereditary influences. Both theenvironment and hereditary elements play a role in developing a human being.

One of the ways that parents can teach their children to develop language skills is by using child-directed speech (CDS) or also known as Motherese. Motherese helps children learn their nativelanguage and helps adults and children develop a relationship. It also teaches children how tocarry on a conversation.

"Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no person". (Scarr andWeinberg, 1980)

The above quote is based on a debate known as "Nature versus Nurture". It shows theinterrelations between environmental and hereditary influences. Nature is the biological heredityof human beings and nurture is the environment such as gender, race, ethnicity, culture, lifestyleand socioeconomic status.

Both nature and nurture play a role in language development. As mentioned before, parents'intelligence correlates to their biological children's language development and social interaction.This is the most influential environmental influence that assists children in increasing their abilityto communicate. Therefore, one must aware the interrelations between environmental andhereditary influences.


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3 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT


1. Foundation of Socio-Emotional Development2. Socio-Emotional Development in Infants3. Socio-Emotional Development in Toddlers4. Contact With Other Children

3.1 Foundation of Socio-Emotional Development

The foundation of socio-emotional development can be divided into three areas, which are:

1. EmotionEmotions refer to subjective feelings like sadness, joy, and fear. These feelings arise inresponse to situations and experiences. They are expressed through some kind ofaltered behavior. It is what you feel inside. For example you might feel angry whenever

someone teases you by calling you a liar.

Everyone has emotions. The same goes with babies who show signs of distress, interestand disgust very soon after birth. The emotions differentiate into joy, anger, surprise,sadness, shyness and fear within the next few months. Infants too are born with twotypes of fear, which are fear of loud noises and fear of falling.

These fears arise due to their actual experiences, taught by the parents. All the emotionsoccur due to the timing of brain maturation. Let us now look at the definition of emotions.The development of emotions can be seen on the graphic shown according to thebiological timetable.

The emotional timetable can be altered by extreme environmental influences. For

example, abused children show fear several months earlier than do other babies.However, although the development of certain basic emotions seems to be universal,there may be cultural variations.

Figure 14: Timetable of Emotional Development


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There are nine aspects of temperament that show up soon after birth. Those are:

i. Activity LevelRelates to how and how much a person moves.

ii. Rhythmicity or RegularityRelates to how predictable the biological cycles of hunger, sleep and eliminationare.

iii. Approach or WithdrawalThe response a person initially makes to a stimulus.

iv. AdaptabilityHow easily an initial response to a new or altered situation is modified in adesired direction.

v. Threshold and ResponsivenessHow much stimulation is needed to evoke a response.

vi. Intensity of ReactionHow energetically a person responds.

vii. Quality of MoodDeterminer of a persons behavior, whether pre-dominantly pleasant orunpleasant.

viii. DistractibilityHow easily an irrelevant stimulus can alter or interfere with a persons behavior.

ix. Attention Span and PersistenceHow long a person pursues an activity and continues in the face of obstacles.

3. Earliest Social ExperiencesPeople say that when a turtle lays its eggs on a beach, tears will flow from its eyes as itleaves its "children" in the hands of fate. How the baby turtles survive or develop isbeyond her help.

We are more fortunate than the turtles because our parents do not desert us at birth.

In general, a family has a big influence on a child's development. Family relationshipduring infancy affects infants' ability to form intimate relationships throughout life.

In addition, infants' experiences with mothers and fathers generally differ from oneanother. Mothers, even when employed outside the home, spend more time in infant-

care. Mothers and fathers in some cultures have different styles of interacting withinfants.

In fact, parents contribute to some gender differences in their children's socio-emotionaldevelopment. Parents treat baby boys and baby girls differently: boys get more attentionand girls are encouraged to smile and to be more social.

If a mother and her baby are separated during the first hours after birth, the mother'sfeeling of closeness and caring with her newborn may not develop normally.


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However, researchers claim that some mothers seem to achieve closer bonding with theirbabies after early-extended contact, and no long-term effects have been shown.

The mother-infant bond is not the only meaningful tie that an infant forms. A mother may

breastfeed her child but other people (e.g. father, siblings, and grandparents) alsocomfort, play with them and give them a sense of security.

Fathers usually form a close bond with infants soon after birth. Men can also be sensitiveand responsive to care for babies despite the common belief that women are biologicallypredisposed for the task.

A pattern shows that fathers spend more time playing with infants than feeding or bathingthem. Vigorous play with the father offers an infant excitement and challenges toovercome fears.

3.2 Socio-Emotional Development in Infants

There are four areas of socio-emotional development in infants, which are:

1. TrustOxford Dictionary defines trust as a firm belief in the reliability of other people.

According to Erikson, the stage of trust begins in infancy and continues till about 18months.

Infants start the development of trust by developing the feeling of how reliable theirsurrounding is. The surrounding refers to the people and things around them. Thisprocess takes place in the early months of infancy.

This process is very important because infants need to balance the feeling of trust and

mistrust. By having the balance of these two feelings, only then can they form anddevelop intimate relationships and even to protect themselves.

Moreover, the feelings of trust and mistrust have a great impact on infants especially onthe way they perceive their lives and the world. If the feeling of trust predominates,infants will develop the belief that they can fulfill their needs and obtain their desires.

On the other hand, if the feeling of mistrust predominates, infants will see the world asunfriendly and unpredictable and will find it difficult to form relationships.

Furthermore, trust can enable infants to let the mother out of sight.

In fact, in developing the trust during infancy, special attention needs to be given onsome critical elements. The elements involve:

i. SensitiveSensitive refers to parents' or caregivers' awareness of infants' feelings,moods and reactions.

For example, when a baby suddenly feels down and gloomy, he or shedoes not want to play. So, the mother needs to be sensitive to realize ornotice the sudden change of mood of the baby. The mother has to findout the reason and the cause of the mood change. By doing this, the


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baby will perceive the mother as someone reliable and a person he orshe can turn to for love and comfort. This leads to the next element in thedevelopment of trust.

ii. Responsive

Responsive refers to the way parents or caregivers react or reply toinfants' needs and desires.

For example, when a baby is hungry, he or she will start to cry. His or hermother needs to respond quickly and favorably so as to show that themother cares about the child. The mother has to be quick to identify thereason and calm the baby down. In this case, the mother needs to feedthe baby by giving milk or food. By doing this, the baby will feel secureand view the mother as someone trustworthy in fulfilling his or her needsand desires.

iii. Consistent Care GivingIt refers to the consistency in the way infants are taken care of byparents or caregivers.

For example, in an incident, a baby cries because he or she quarrelsover a toy. The mother comforts the baby by giving an advice not toquarrel. The same treatment should be given if the same incidentreoccurs. However, if the mother scolds the baby, the baby will think thatthe mother cannot be trusted and relied on. He or she is confused due todifferent treatments, both positive and negative, that result from thesame incident.

2. AttachmentIn Human Development context, attachment means the feeling that binds a parent andchild together. There are three processes infants must go through first before they candevelop the sense of attachment to their parents.

The processes are:

a. To learn to distinguish human beings from inanimate objects.b. To learn to distinguish between human beings so that they can recognize their

parents as familiar and strangers as unfamiliar.c. To develop a specific attachment to one person.

Attachment can be defined as an active, affectionate, reciprocal, enduring relationshipbetween two people whose interaction continues to strengthen their bond.

Sucking, crying, smiling and clinging are examples of attachment seeking behavior.These are activities on the baby's part that may get a response from adults. These

behaviors are successful when the mother gives warm response, expresses delight andgives the baby frequent physical contact and freedom to explore.

Furthermore, according to Ainsworth, there are four overlapping stages of attachmentbehavior during the first year.

The four overlapping stages of attachment behavior during the first year are:

i. Before two months


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Mutual Regulation is a process of interaction between infants and their caregivers thatdetermines the quality of attachment. This depends on the ability of both to respondappropriately to signals about each other's emotional states.

Figure 16: Example of Mutual Regulation

Social referencing is a process of seeking out and interpreting the caregivers' perceptionof a situation and gaining an understanding of appropriate ways of responding to it.

According to the mutual regulation model, babies actively regulate their emotional states.They read the emotions of others and after six months of age, they engage in socialreferencing.

Depression is an affective mood disorders in which a person feels down and unhappy for

a prolonged period of time, interfering with his or her normal functioning.

Healthy interaction between infants and their caregivers occurs when the caregivers canread and understand infants' message accurately and respond appropriately throughmutual regulation.

In addition, infants become joyful and interested if their goals are met. However, if theirgoals are not met, they become angry and sad. They will keep on sending messages tocorrect the interaction.

In fact, young infants can perceive emotions expressed by others and can adjust theirown behavior accordingly.

In terms of social referencing, infants will be able to show the social referencing startingsix months after birth. Their action and behavior are based on the immediate presence orappearance of a new person or toy.

The other factor that has an influence on communication is depression. Different types ofdepression may affect how infants are brought up.

There are two types of depression that are known as temporary and chronic depression.Temporary depression may not affect the interaction between infants and their caregivers


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Moreover, self-awareness is the first step of developing standards of behavior wherebychildren start to understand the response given by parents to something they have done.This is directed at them and not just at the act itself.

For example, when children throw rubbish everywhere, the parents scold them. The actof scolding is not only directed to the act of throwing rubbish but also to the childrenthemselves. This is to correct the children's action as well as to tell them the standardbehavior that the parents want the children to follow.

There are three phases in the development of sense of self in toddlers. The phases are:

i. Physical self-recognition and self-awarenessIn this phase, most toddlers recognize themselves in mirrors or pictures bythe age of 18 months, showing awareness of themselves as physicallydistinct beings.

ii. Self-description and self-evaluationOnce they already know that they are distinct beings, children begin to use

descriptive terms and evaluative ones on themselves. They learn thedescriptive terms. This is the time when needs and vocabularies expand.For example, a four-year-old girl knows that she is a girl, has black hair,loves to play with teddy bears and she likes to eat yogurt with a strawberryflavor.

iii. Emotional response to wrongdoingIn this phase, toddlers show that they are upset with their parents'disapproval and stop doing things they are not supposed to do while they arebeing watched.

2. AutonomyBased on Erikson's theory, toddlers learn to be independent and have self-control from

18 months to three years. This happens during the autonomy versus shame and doubtstage.

At this time, toddlers have acquired the sense of basic trust and self-awareness. As aresult, by using the sense of basic trust and self-awareness, toddlers begin to replace thecaregiver's judgment with their own.

In addition, according to Erikson, unlimited freedom is neither safe nor healthy.Therefore, it is necessary to include the doubt and shame in developing a child.

Self-doubt helps children recognize what they are not yet ready to do. On the other hand,

shame helps them to live by reasonable rules.

For example, when a girl wants to do something, she will have a doubt whether she cando it, she wants to do it or even she is ready to do it. Then, she will think about the effectof her action whether it is all right for her to do it and how others view her action. How canshe know that her judgment is correct?

In this case, parents can help by setting the level of freedom for their children. Let thechildren know that although they can make their own judgment there are still limits in theiractions and there are rules that they have to follow.


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3. Self RegulationSelf-regulation is a process of controlling one's behavior to conform to a caregiver'sdemands or expectations, even when the caregiver is not present.

It is an undeniable fact that parents are the most important people in toddlers' life. One ofthe parent's responsibilities is giving approval.

Toddlers will find ways to meet the parents' approval. They do this through socialreferencing and by reading their parents' emotional responses to their behavior. Thisprocess goes on, as toddlers will continue to absorb information about what conduct theirparents approve of. For example, a boy who is always praised by his parents for keepinghis toys in a box will always do that when he finishes playing in order to be praised.

For your information, the development of self-regulation parallels the development of theself-conscious emotions such as empathy, shame and guilt. It requires flexibility andability to wait for gratification.

Normally, the full development of self-regulation takes about three years. There are four

significant periods occurring in these three years of development. The periods occur inthe first year, 1-year, two years and three years.

During the first years, babies cannot generalize from one situation to another. They treateach situation in isolation. For example, a baby named Daniel has to be told to stay awayfrom electric outlets each time he approaches one. Then, he will stay away for only ashort time and also when his father or mother is around. He will keep poking his fingerinto other dangerous places.

In 1 year, infants can think and remember well enough to connect what they want to dowith what they have been told. For example, Daniel wants to play with a socket, his fathershouts "No! Daniel pulls his arm back. The next time, when he points his finger to thesocket, he hesitates and says "No!" to himself. He stops doing something that he is not

supposed to do.

During the age of two years, toddlers probably will know many rules about what and howto do things and to avoid things that they are not allowed to touch. For example, Daniel isaware, by now, that he is not supposed to touch electrical outlets and he is even notsupposed to go near them. However, he might not follow the rules totally especially whenit comes to something new, for instance a new electrical outlet installed in the house.

During the age of three years, young children already know the things that need to beavoided. For example, when Daniel sees any electrical outlets even if they are new tohim, he will not touch them. He even will avoid anything that looks like an electrical outlet.

4. Internalization and Conscience

Internalization is a process of accepting societal standards of conduct as one's own.

On the other hand, conscience is an internal standard of behavior that usually controlsconduct and produces emotional discomfort when disregarded.

After we have understood the definition of the two words, now, let us see thedevelopment of conscience.

Societal standards are the rules and regulations or norms set by the society andgenerally accepted by its members.


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Internal standards are rules and regulations that are personally set in an individual andsometimes might differ from the societal standard.

Socialization depends on the internalization of societal standards. Therefore, it is said

that successfully socialized children are those who have made the society's standardstheir own. In fact, internalization is crucial for the development of conscience.

Next, let us have a look at the factors that contribute to the process of socializing a child.Among the factors are as below:

i. The way parents socialize the childii. A child's temperamentiii. Secure attachment to responsive parentsiv. Observational learning of parents' behaviorv. The way parents and child interact

These factors influence how hard and easy the process of socializing a child will be.

Moreover, the factors mentioned earlier also play an important role in motivating a childto comply.

There are two types of compliance, which are:

i. Committed complianceCommitted compliance is an early form of conscience whereby children acceptthe mother's order wholeheartedly, following them without reminders or lapses.Children who are rated as having internalized household rules by their parentstend to display the most committed compliance.

For example, a child who is prohibited from playing with electrical outlets will stayaway from them either with or without the mother's presence. This shows that the

child has internalized the prohibition.

ii. Situational complianceA situational compliance show that children need to be ordered to obey that isthe compliance depends on ongoing parental control. Children who showsituational compliance tend to yield to temptation when their mothers are out ofsight.

For example, a child who is forbidden from playing with electrical outlets has tobe reminded from time to time. He or she might play with them when the motheris not there to see what he or she is doing.

3.4 Contact with Other ChildrenIn contact with other children, we shall look into the followings:

i. SiblingsIt will be much easier for you to understand the lesson if you can imagine a situation inwhich infants or toddlers is playing with their siblings.

Now, close your eyes and imagine you are in a room. You can see three or four childrenplaying in the room. Observe how they interact with each other.


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Normally, babies start to interact soon after birth. However, the interaction is moreobvious after the first six months when they start to interact more with their siblings.

The amount of time one-year-old children spend with their siblings is almost as much as

the time they spend with their mothers. In fact, in many societies, older siblings have aresponsibility to take care of their younger siblings. However, in the process of the siblingcare, rivalry occurs as does affection.

As young children are usually attached to their older brothers or sisters, it is common forthem to cry and become upset when their siblings go away and greet them when theycome back.

As young children grow up, siblings will display both positive and negative behaviors. Forexample, toddlers have the tendency to imitate whatever behavior displayed by theirolder siblings due to their closeness.

ii. Non-SiblingsYoung children not only show their interest in their family members but also the people

outside their families, especially those of their own size.

Picture yourself standing in a room with a few newborns. All the newborns are sleeping.Suddenly, one of the newborns starts to cry maybe because he or she is hungry. Noticethat, after a few seconds the other newborns will also start to cry.

Such a scenario is common, for it is common for babies to start crying upon hearinganother baby's cries. In addition, during the first few months, they begin to show theirinterest in other babies the same way they respond to their mother.

When babies reach the age of six months to one year, they will start to smile at, touchand babble to other babies. This is more likely to happen when they are not distracted bythe presence of adults or toys.

Later, when babies reach one year old, they prefer to play with toys than with otherpeople. However, at the age of three, they start to show more interest in what otherchildren do. This will help them increase their understanding on how to deal with otherchildren.

As we have discussed in the previous lesson, toddlers like to imitate other peopleespecially their siblings. The same thing happens when they are with non-siblings.

Toddlers will imitate each other. This is actually one way for them to learn somethingnew. Furthermore, imitating one another helps them to interact with other children andpave the way for participation in more complex games during the preschool years.

Toddlers cannot run away from facing conflicts in the interaction with non-siblings.However, conflicts with other children help toddlers learn how to negotiate and resolvearguments and disagreements. The older they become the bigger the conflicts theywould experience.

For example, two little girls are dressing up a doll together. However, the two of themhave different ways and they start to argue on which way they should dress the doll. Thisis an example of a situation which requires them learn how to negotiate in order to satisfythe people involved.


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iii. DaycareA high quality daycare has positive impact on cognitive, emotional and socialdevelopment.

Characteristics of a good day care:

Children have access to educational toys and materials. Children have caregivers that teach and accept them. The caregivers are neither too controlling nor merely custodial but provide a

balance between structured activities and free play.

Based on cognitive measurement, children who have the chance to be in daycare andjoin other children have the tendency to perform better in many tasks compared to thosewho just stay at home alone.

They also tend to score higher on IQ tests, to show more advanced eye-handcoordination, to play more creatively, to know more about the physical world, to countand measure better, to show better language skills and be more advanced in knowingtheir names and addresses.

Many parents feel afraid to send their young children to daycare because they think that itwill ruin their interaction and attachment with their children. This is not true. However, theeffect or risk lies in a combination of poor quality care and unresponsive parenting.

Poor quality care involves mainly the caregivers in daycare. Some caregivers have notraining and no experience in taking care of children. On the other hand, unresponsiveparenting refers to parents who are unable to give appropriate responses and are notsensitive to their children needs.

Research shows that infants whose mothers are insensitive tend to be insecurelyattached if they get poor-quality day care. Moreover, boys who spend more than 30 hours

a week at the day care center tend to be insecurely attached.

However, there are still positive effects of sending young children to daycare.

Young children who spent much time at the daycare center during their first year tend tobe as sociable, self-confident, persistent, achieving and skilled at solving problems aschildren at home.

Moreover, preschoolers raised in daycare tend to be more comfortable in a new situation,more outgoing, less timid and fearful, more helpful and cooperative, and more verballyexpressive.


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ADDITIONAL MATERIALS

Printed Materials

Levine, Ellen (ed.) 1995. The Good Housekeeping Book of Child Care. USA: St. Remy PressInc.

Fenwick, Ellen 1996. The Complete Book of Mother and Baby Care. Great Britain: DorlingKindersley Ltd.

Papalia, Diane E.; Olds, Sally W.; Feldman, Ruth D. 1998. Human Development. USA:McGraw-Hill.

Santrock, John W. 1997. Children. USA: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.

Santrock, John W. 1999. Life-Span Development. USA: McGraw-Hill.

Sdorow, Lester M. 1998. Psychology. USA: McGraw-Hill.

Smith, Tony (ed.) 1996. Complete Family Health Encyclopedia. Great Britain: DorlingKindersley Ltd.

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