1. 2 the history and scope of psychology overview what is psychology? psychology’s roots ...
TRANSCRIPT
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The History and Scope of Psychology Overview
What is Psychology? Psychology’s Roots
Contemporary Psychology
Psychological Perspectives
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Psychology’s RootsAristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle, a naturalist and philosopher, theorized about psychology’s concepts.
He suggested that the soul and body are not separate and that knowledge grows from
experience.
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Psychology’s Roots
Psychological Science
Is Born Empiricism
Knowledge comes from
experience via the senses Science flourishes
through observation
and experiment
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Psychological Science is Born
Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of
the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in
1879.
This work is considered the birth of psychology
as we know it today.
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Psychological Science is Born
American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook.
Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president.
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Mary C
alk
ins
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Psychological Science is Born
Psychology originated in many disciplines and countries. It was, until the 1920s, defined as the science of
mental life.
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Psychological Science is Born
Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician, and his followers emphasized the importance of the
unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.
Fre
ud
(1856
-1939)
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Psychological Science DevelopsBehaviorists
Watson and later Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter
of scientific psychology.
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Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Psychologist What she does
ClinicalStudies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
CounselingHelps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.
EducationalStudies and helps individuals in school and educational settings
Industrial/Organizational
Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.
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Research Strategies: How Psychologists
Ask and Answer Questions
Module 2
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Operational definition
• A statement of the procedures used to define research variables
• Allows and facilitates replication of observations
• Operationally define shoe?
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Survey
Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a
sample, it is called a random sample
(unbiased).The fastest way to know about
the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.
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Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Correlation coefficient
Indicates directionof relationship
(positive or negative)
Indicates strengthof relationship(0.00 to 1.00)
r = 0.37+
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two
variables.
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Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There
is a moderate positive correlation of +0.63.
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Skewed Distributions
PositiveMean > Median
NegativeMean < Median
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Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
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Experimentation
Experimentation is the backbone of psychological research.
Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
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Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept
under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
Exploring Cause & Effect
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Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
Neither the participant nor the research assistant knows whether the participant is receiving the treatment or a placebo
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An independent variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the
focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast
feeding is the independent variable.
Independent Variable IV
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A dependent variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a
behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence,
intelligence is the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable DV
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FAQ
Q1. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?
Q2. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Q3. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
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FAQ
Q4. Is it ethical to experiment on people?
Q5. Is psychology free of value judgments?
Q6. Is psychology potentially dangerous?
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Neural and Hormonal Systems
Module 3
“…it has been calculated that the number of possible permutations and
combinations of brain activity,..exceeds the number of
elementary particles in the known universe.”
Ramachandran in A Brief Tour Of Human Consciousness
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Neural CommunicationThe body’s information system is built from
billions of interconnected cells called neurons.
A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
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Myelin sheath“Practice makes Myelin, Myelin
makes perfect.”• Specialized Glial cells • Acts as an electrical
insulator • Not present on all
cells• Increases the speed
of neural signals down the axon.
Myelin Sheath
Parts of a Neuron link .50
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How neurons communicate
• Neurons communicate by means of an electrical signal called the Action Potential
• Action Potentials are based on movements of ions between the outside and inside of the cell
• When an Action Potential occurs a molecular message is sent to neighboring neurons
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Action PotentialA neural impulse. A
brief electrical charge that travels down an
axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of
channels in the axon’s membrane.
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Threshold
Threshold: Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals
from many neurons.
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Action Potential Properties
All-or-None Response: A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the
action potentials strength or speed.
Intensity of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the
axon.
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Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters (chemicals)
released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving
neuron.
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Types of Neurotransmitters• Acetylcholine• Serotonin• Norepinephrine• Dopamine• Endorphins• GABA • Glutamate
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Acetylcholine
• Found in neuromuscular junction
• Involved in muscle movements
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Alzheimer’s Disease• Deterioration of memory, reasoning,
and language skills
• Symptoms may be due to loss of ACh neurons
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Serotonin
Serotonin pathways are involved with
mood regulation.
Prozac works by keeping serotonin in the synapse
longer, giving it more time to exert an effect
LSD and Seratonin at Nat Geo 2:21
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Dopamine
Important for movement, rewards & pleasure.
Involved with diseases such
as schizophrenia
and Parkinson’s disease.
Link dopamine flood at Nat Geo 3:44
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Endorphins• Control pain and
pleasure• Released in response to
pain• Morphine and codeine
work on endorphin receptors Involved in healing effects of acupuncture
• Link Endorphins at AM 5:12
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Kinds of Neurons
Sensory Neurons carry incoming
information from the sense receptors to the
CNS. Motor Neurons carry outgoing information
from the CNS to muscles and glands. Interneurons connect
the two neurons.
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Sympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
Parasympathetic Nervous System: Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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The Endocrine System
The Endocrine System is the body’s “slow”
chemical communication
system. Communication is
carried out by hormones
synthesized by a set of glands.
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The Brain
• Module 4
• Slides from Myers, Runyan, McCubbin, and Jones
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PET ScanPET (positron emission tomography) Scan is a visual display of brain activity that detects a radioactive form of glucose while the brain performs a given task.
Co
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to
produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures
within the brain
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fMRI - Functional MRI
Compares MRI scans taken less than a second apart
Detects blood moving to active parts of the brain
Shows brain function
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Brain Stem
The Medulla is the base of the brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular Formation is a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal & attention.
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Brain StemThe Thalamus is the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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The Limbic System is a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebrum, associated with emotions such as fear, aggression and drives for food and sex. It includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
The Limbic System
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HypothalamusThe Hypothalamus lies below (hypo) the thalamus. It directs several maintenance activities like eating, drinking, body temperature, and control of emotions. It helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
"TALE of the hypothalamus":
Temperature
Appetite
Libido
Emotion
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Rats cross an electrified grid for
self-stimulation when electrodes are placed in the
reward (hypothalamus)
center (top picture).
Reward Center
Sanjiv T
alwar, S
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ownstate
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Hippocampus• Important for
memory
• Damage may cause anterograde amnesia
• Link 9:58
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The Cerebral Cortex
• Cerebral Cortex – the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells
that covers the cerebral hemispheres– the body’s ultimate control and information
processing center
• Glial Cells – cells in the nervous system that are not neurons
but that support, nourish, and protect neurons
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Figure 2.24 The cerebral cortexMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
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The Cerebral Cortex• Frontal Lobes
– involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
• Parietal Lobes
– include the sensory cortex
• Occipital Lobes
– include the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
• Temporal Lobes
– include the auditory areasLink Frontal lobe development at PBS
13:33
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The Cerebral Cortex
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The Cerebral CortexAphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)
Broca’s Area Link
an area of the left frontal lobe that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke’s Area Link
an area of the left temporal lobe involved in language comprehension Link 7:44
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Split Brain
a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the corpus Callosum.
Sperry and Gazzaniga are key researchers in this area.
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Behavior Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology
Module 5
Environmental Influences on
Behavior
Module 6
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Environmental Influence
Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes,
and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Norm an understood rule for accepted and
expected behavior
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Developmental Issues,
Prenatal Development,
and the Newborn
Module 7
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Developmental Psychology
Issue Details
Nature/Nurture
How do genetic inheritance (our nature)
and experience (the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Continuity/Stages
Is developmental a gradual, continuous
process or a sequence of separate stages?
Stability/Change
Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become
different persons as we age.
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PKU - Phenylketonuria
• Recessive genetic condition where the child lacks an enzyme to break down phenylalanine
• Untreated, it can cause problems with brain development, leading to retardation, brain damage, and seizures
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Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival…
• Rooting - turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek
• Grasping - curling the fingers around an object• Stepping Reflex -
reflex that causes
newborns to
start a stepping motion
as they touch a surface
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Prenatal Development and the Newborn
Preferences human voices
and faces facelike
images, smell and sound of mother preferred
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Infancy and Childhood
Module 8
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Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,
the individual grows physically, cognitively, and socially.
Stage Span
Infancy Newborn to toddler
Childhood Toddler to teenager
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Schema a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets information, they are building blocks of intellectual development
Schema example 2:23
Psychology 7e in Modules 72
Typical Age Range
Description of Stage
Developmental Phenomena
SensorimotorBirth to nearly 2 years
Experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing)
•Object permanence•Stranger anxiety•Some cause and effect
PreoperationalAbout 2 to 6 years
Concrete operationalAbout 7 to 11 years
Formal operationalAbout 12 through adulthood
Representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning
•Pretend play•Egocentrism•Language development•Think in symbols
Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations
•Conservation •Mathematical transformations
Abstract reasoning, speculation •Abstract logic•Potential for moral reasoning
Piaget’s Stages
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Piaget Stages Mnemonic
• Smart People Cook Fish
• Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete-operational, Formal-operational
Psychology 7e in Modules 74
Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,
mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects that are out of
sight are also out of mind.
Dou
g G
ood
man
Object permanence in dogs 15:20
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Preoperational Stage
Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 6-7 years old, children are in the
preoperational stage—too young to perform mental operations.
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Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
Conservation the principle that properties such as mass,
volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
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Harlow and Attachment
Harlow’s Surrogate Mother Experiments Monkeys preferred
contact with the comfortable cloth mother, even while feeding from the nourishing wire mother
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Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth – Strange situation– Unfamiliar playroom– Mother and unfamiliar woman– Women play with baby – leave briefly
• How to the babies respond?
• Link 3:15
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Insecure Attachment
• Some have insecure attachment, 30%– Avoidant – avoid or ignore mother on return– Ambivalent –upset when mom leaves, but
vacillate between clingy and angry on return– Disorganized – inconsistent, disturbed,
disturbing – may reach out for mom while looking away (Moss 2004)
– Link 2:10
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Deprivation of Attachment
What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming attachments?
In such circumstances children become:
1. Withdrawn2. Frightened3. Unable to develop speech
Link 13:20 Attachment Disorder
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Social Development: Parenting Styles
Authoritarian parents impose rules and expect obedience “Don’t interrupt.” “Why? Because I said so.”
Permissive submit to children’s desires, make few demands, use
little punishment Authoritative
both demanding and responsive set rules, but explain reasons and encourage open
discussion Rejecting-Neglecting
completely uninvolved; disengaged. Expect little and invest little
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Adolescence
Module 9
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Developing Morality
Kohlberg (1981, 1984) sought to describe the development of moral reasoning by posing moral dilemmas to children and adolescents, such as “Should a person
steal medicine to save a loved one’s life?” He found stages of moral development.
AP
Ph
oto
/ Dave
Martin
Link Where is morality at PBS 14:08
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximateage Stage Description of Task
Infancy Trust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.
Toddler Autonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year) and doubt do things for themselves, or they
doubt their abilities.
Preschooler Initiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel
guilty about efforts to be independent.
Elementary Competence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years- inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel puberty) inferior.
Mnemonic
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Mnemonic linkApproximateage Stage Description of Task
Adolescence Identity vs. role Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusion testing roles and then integrating them to 20’s) form a single identity, or they become
confused about who they are.
Young Adult Intimacy vs. Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20’s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40’s) love, or they feel socially isolated.
Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40’s to 60’s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through family
and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Late Adult Integrity vs. When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60’s and despair adult may feel a sense of satisfaction orup) failure.
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Adulthood
Module 10
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Aging and Intelligence
It is believed today that fluid intelligence (ability to reason speedily) declines with
age, but crystalline intelligence (accumulated knowledge and skills)
increases.
We gain vocabulary and knowledge but lose recall memory and process more slowly.
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Introduction to Sensation and
Perception: Vision
Module 11
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ThresholdsAbsolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation needed
to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time.
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“Yes”
Resp
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1.0
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Why Does the “Absolute” Threshold Vary?
- Signal Detection• Sensitivity:
– Intensity of the signal.– Capacity of sensory systems.– Amount of background stimulation, or “noise.”
• Response criterion reflects one’s willingness to respond to a stimulus.– Influenced by motivation and expectancies.
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Sensory Adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
Put a band aid on your arm and after awhileyou don’t sense it.
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Transduction
In sensation, the transformation of stimulus energy (sights, sounds, smells) into neural impulses.
…we live in the past in a very real way.
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The LensLens: Transparent
structure behind the pupil that changes
shape to focus images on the retina.
Accommodation: The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to help focus
near or far objects on the retina.
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Retina
Retina: The light-sensitive inner
surface of the eye, containing
receptor rods and cones in addition to layers of other neurons (bipolar,
ganglion cells) that process
visual information.
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Optic Nerve, Blind Spot & Fovea
http://www.bergen.org
Optic nerve: Carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Blind Spot: Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye because there are no receptor cells located there.
Fovea: Central point in the retina around which the eye’s cones cluster.
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Retina’s Reaction to Light- Receptors
Rods peripheral retina detect black, white and gray twilight or low light
Cones near center of retina fine detail and color vision daylight or well-lit conditions
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Bipolar & Ganglion Cells
Bipolar cells receive messages
from photoreceptors and transmit
them to ganglion cells, which
converge to form the optic nerve.
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Feature Detection
Nerve cells/neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific features, such as edges, angles, and movement…. many
cortical cells respond most strongly to specific visual information
Ros
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Color Blindness
Ishihara Test
Genetic disorder in which people are blind to green or red colors. This supports the
Trichromatic theory.
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Opponent Process Theory
Hering proposed that we process four primary colors combined in pairs of red-green, blue-
yellow, and black-white.
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Opponent Colors
Gaze at the middle of the flag for about 60Seconds. When it disappears, stare at the dot and report
whether or not you see Britain's flag.
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The Other Senses
Module 12
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Frequency (Pitch)
Frequency (pitch):
Determined by the
wavelength of sound.
•The star player FREQUENTLY PITCHES.
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The Ear
Dr. Fred H
ossler/ Visuals U
nlimited
Link Shepherds ascending scale
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The Ear
Outer Ear/Pinna: Collects and sends sounds to the eardrum.
Middle Ear: Chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.
Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
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CochleaCochlea: Coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in
the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations to auditory signals.
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Localization of SoundsBecause we have two ears, sounds that reach one ear faster than the other ear cause us to localize
the sound.
1. Intensity differences2. Time differences
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Taste
Traditionally, taste sensations consisted of sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes. Recently, receptors
for a fifth taste have been discovered called “Umami”.
Sweet Sour Salty Bitter Umami(Fresh
Chicken)
Taste link at Nova
Blocking bitter taste at Nova
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Chemical Senses: The Flavors and Aromas of
Life• Olfaction
– Olfactory epithelium – top of nasal cavity – Pheromone detection of sweat and urine
• Vomeronasal organ• Influence human female reproductive cycles• Inhalation of male sex hormone and mood
changes• Males may respond to sex hormones
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Perceptual Organization
Module 13
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Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
Gestalt--an organized whole tendency to integrate pieces of information
into meaningful wholes a school of psychology founded in Germany
in the 1900s that maintained our sensations are processed according to consistent perceptual rules that result in meaningful whole perceptions, or gestalts.
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Organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their
surroundings (ground).
Figure GroundT
ime S
avings Suggestion, ©
2003 Roger S
heperd.
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Perceptual Organization: Gestalt
Grouping Principles proximity--group nearby figures together similarity--group figures that are similar continuity--perceive continuous patterns closure--fill in gaps connectedness--spots, lines, and areas are
seen as unit when connected
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Depth Perception
Visual Cliff
Depth perception enables us to judge distances. Gibson and Walk (1960) suggested that human infants (crawling age) have depth perception. Even newborn animals show depth perception.
Inne
rvis
ions
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Binocular Cues
Convergence: Neuromuscular cues. When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see
faraway objects.
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Monocular Cues
Relative motion: Objects closer to a fixation point move faster and in opposing direction to those objects that are farther away from a fixation
point, moving slower and in the same direction.
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Perceptual Constancy
Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal
images change.
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Perceptual Interpretation
Module 14
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Waking and Sleeping Rhythms
Module 15
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Biological Rhythms and SleepCircadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and
include sleep and wakefulness. Termed our “biological clock,” it can be altered by artificial light.
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at nightfall.
Illu
stra
tion
© C
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urne
r 20
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During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.
Sleep Stages 1-2
Theta Waves
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Stage 5: REM Sleep
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1.
Although still asleep, the brain engages in low- amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
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1. Insomnia: A persistent inability to fall asleep. Fatal Insomnia Link 43:19
2. Narcolepsy: Overpowering urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing up. Narcoleptic dog 1:49 Narcolepsy 4:00
3. Sleep apnea: Failure to breathe when asleep. Link 2:27
Sleep Disorders
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Hypnosis
Module 16
125
Hypnosis Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one
experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion
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Hypnosis: Pain Relief
Dissociation (divided consciousness) a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to
occur simultaneously with others
Hidden Observer Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized
subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis
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Drugs and Consciousness
Module 17
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Dependence & AddictionContinued use of a psychoactive drug
produces tolerance.
With repeated exposure to a drug,
the drug’s effect lessens. Thus it takes greater
quantities to get the desired effect.
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Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug users may experience undesirable side effects.
2. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical dependence), and negative emotions (psychological dependence).
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Depressants1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.
Daniel H
omm
er, NIA
AA
, NIH
, HH
S
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Depressants
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.
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Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs
that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the
absence of sensory input.
Housewife on Acid on CNN 5:01
Another person on Acid 8:46
Leary and kids who dropped acid…creepy 1:14
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Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning
Module 18Module 18
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It was the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical
conditioning.
His work provided a basis for later behaviorists like John Watson.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sov
foto
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Classical Conditioning is Classical Conditioning is learning that takes place when learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus an originally neutral stimulus
comes to produce a conditioned comes to produce a conditioned response because of its response because of its
association with an association with an unconditioned stimulus.unconditioned stimulus.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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AcquisitionAcquisition is the initial learning stage in
classical conditioning in which an association between a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus takes place.
1. In most cases, for conditioning to occur, the neutral stimulus needs to come before the unconditioned stimulus.
2. The time in between the two stimuli should be about half a second. One must reliably predict the other.
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Acquisition
The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur.
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Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to
decrease and eventually causes extinction.
A disappeared CR is called extinguished, not extinct.
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Stimulus Generalization
Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization.
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Stimulus Discrimination
Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned
stimulus.
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Biological Predispositions• John Garcia
Conditioned taste aversions
• Not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
• Internal stimuli—associate better with taste
• External stimuli—associate better with pain
• Biological preparedness
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Behaviorism
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as objective science generally agreed-upon
consensus today
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes not universally accepted by all
schools of thought today
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Remember that Little Albert Remember that Little Albert generalized his fear of rats into generalized his fear of rats into fear of anything with white fur, fear of anything with white fur,
including a Santa Claus mask, a including a Santa Claus mask, a rabbit, etc.rabbit, etc.
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Operant Conditioning
Module 19
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Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. link
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminateobjects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
Kham
is Ram
adhan/ Panapress/ Getty Im
ages
Fred Bavendam
/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
149
Types of Reinforcers
Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the
behavior it follows.
A heat lamp positively
reinforces a meerkat’s behavior
in the cold.
Reuters/ C
orbis
150
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcer (+)– Adds something
rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
– Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example
• Negative reinforcer (-)– Removes something
unpleasant that was already in the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again
– Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is an example
151
Punishment
An aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows.
152
Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
like gambling, fishing very hard to
extinguish because of unpredictability
Skinner link 3:58
SLOT machines show SLOwesT extinction.
153
Updating Skinner’s Understanding
• Skinner’s emphasis on external control of behavior made him an influential, but controversial figure.
• Many psychologists criticized Skinner for underestimating the importance of cognitive and biological constraints.
154
Learning By Observation
Module 20
155
Learning by Observation
Higher animals, especially humans,
learn through observing and
imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the
monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to
obtain a reward.
© H
erb Terrace
©H
erb Terrace
156
Modeling Violence
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Bob
Dae
mm
rich/
The
Imag
e W
orks
Gla
ssm
an/ T
he Im
age
Wor
ks
157
Information
Processing
Module 21
158
Studying Memory: Information Processing
Models
Keyboard(Encoding)
Disk(Storage)
Monitor(Retrieval)
Sequential Process How Memory Works Nova
159
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
160
Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with
what we already know or imagine.
Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better
recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.
161
Chunking
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
You already know the capacity of the working memory may be increased by
“chunking.”
FBI TWA CIA IBMBut you didn’t know that you can handle 4
chunks
162
Stress Hormones & MemoryFlashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Scott Barbour/ G
etty Images
163
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know
and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual
does not know or declare what she knows.
164
Fig. 7-23, p. 286
165
No New Memories
Amnesias
AnterogradeAmnesia
(HM)
Retrograde amnesia
Surgery
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered
everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this
anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
How memory works at Nova 10:15
Memory intact
Surgery
No old memories
166
Implicit & Explicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that aredeclarative (explicit), but he can form newmemories that are procedural (implicit).
CBA
Towers of Hanoi Link
167
Forgetting, Memory
Construction, and Improving
Memory
Module 22
168
Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
169
Thinking
Module 23
170
Thinking Cognition
mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Psychologists study these mental activities
concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation
171
Thinking
Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events,
ideas, or people
Prototype mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
172
Thinking Algorithm
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--use of heuristics
173
Algorithms
Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a
solution. Computers use algorithms.
S P L O Y O C H Y G
If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face
907,200 possibilities.
174
Heuristics
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow us to make judgments and
solve problems efficiently. Heuristics
are less time consuming, but more
error-prone than algorithms.
Heuristics with the psych files 15:12
B2M
Productions/D
igital Version/G
etty Images
175
Thought Puzzle #1
What got in the way of solving this problem?
Mental Set - Old pattern of problem solving is applied to a new problem.
Functional Fixedness – A tendency to think about familiar objects in familiar ways which may prevent more creative use of those objects to solve the problem.
176
Functional Fixedness
A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object.
?
Problem: Tie the two ropes together. Use a screw driver, cotton balls and a matchbox.
177
Obstacles in Solving Problems
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias.
2 – 4 – 6
Discover the rule
178
Fixation
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes
problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness.
The Matchstick Problem: How would
you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
From
“Problem
Solving” by M
. Scheerer. C
opyright © 1963 by
Scientific A
merican, Inc. A
ll Rights R
eserved.
179
Language and Thought
Module 24/CH 11 Sec 2Language is so powerful that is has “…produced a species that transcends apehood to the same degree by which life transcends mundane chemistry and physics.”
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran The Tell Tale Brain pg. xv
180
Language Structure
Phonemes: The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. For example:
bat, has three phonemes b · a · t
chat, has three phonemes ch · a · t
Languages have these sounds in common
She has mastered the Phonemes but not the meaning…Ken Lee vid 1:14
181
Language Structure
Morpheme: The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. For example:
Milk = milk
Pumpkin = pump . kin
Unforgettable = un · for · get · table
182
Language
Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning
from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
also, the study of meaning
Syntax the rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences in a given language
183
Language Babbling Stage (pre-linguistic event)
beginning at 3 to 4 months the stage of speech development in which
the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language Linguistic Genius of babies at TED 10:18
One-Word Stage from about age 1 to 2 the stage in speech development during
which a child speaks mostly in single words
Link
184
Explaining Language Development cont.
2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn.
185
Language Influences Thinking
Linguistic Determinism (Whorf hypothesis): language determines the way we think.
For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past.Link
187
InsightChimpanzees show insightful behavior
when solving problems.
Sultan uses sticks to get food.
Chimp Problem solving: http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=ySMh1mBi3cI&NR=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xOrgOW9LnT4&feature=related&safety
_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
188
Intelligence Module 25
189
General Intelligence
Spearman proposed that general intelligence (g) is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis.
For example, people who do well on vocabulary examinations do well on
paragraph comprehension examinations, a cluster that helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors include a spatial ability factor,
and a reasoning ability factor.
Link Battle of the Brains 49:23
190
Intelligence and Creativity
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are both novel and valuable. It correlates
somewhat with intelligence.1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in
novel ways, recognize patterns and make connections.
3. A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks new experiences rather than following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative from within, must enjoy challenges.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive environment allows creativity to bloom.Creativity on TED
191
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet practiced a modern form of
intelligence testing by developing questions
that would predict children’s future
progress in the Paris school system.
192
Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s
test for American school children and named the test the
Stanford-Binet Test.
The following is the formula of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ)
193
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution of scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
194
Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. To establish reliability researchers
establish different procedures:
1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
195
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validity of a test refers to what the test is
supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a test measures a particular behavior or trait.
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test in predicting a particular behavior or trait.
196
Genetic InfluencesStudies of twins, family members, and adopted
children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence.
197
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation in verbal ability to their adopted parents.
198
Introduction to Motivation: Hunger
Module 26
Link: Battle at Kruger 8:24
199
Drive Reduction Theory Cont.
• Primary Drives– Unlearned
• Food• Water• Temperature regulation
FoodDrive
Reduction
Organism
Stomach FullEmpty Stomach(Food Deprived)
• Secondary Drives– Learned
• Money• Shelter• Job
200
Homeostasis
-tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
-regulation of any aspect of body chemistry around a particular level
201
Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our
drives.
A food-deprived person who smells baking bread(incentive) feels a strong hunger drive.
202
Hierarchy of Needs
203
Body Chemistry & the Brain
Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by
receptors (neurons) in the stomach,
liver, and intestines. They send signals to the hypothalamus in
the brain.
Rat Hypothalamus
Glucose Molecule
204
Hypothalamic CentersThe lateral hypothalamus (LH) brings on
hunger (stimulation). Destroy the LH, and the animal has no interest in eating.
The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat
ravenously. Lateral nucleus – Causes us to start eating and keep eating. (LATERAL)
"Late night snack":
LATEral is snacking [feeding]
center.
205
Hypothalamic Centers
The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) depresses hunger (stimulation). Destroy the
VMH, and the animal eats excessively.
Richard H
owardVentromedial nucleus - Causes us
to stop eating and not be interested in food. (VomitMeal)
206
Hypothalamus & Hormones
The hypothalamus monitors a number of hormones thatare related to hunger.
Hormone Tissue ResponseOrexin increase
Hypothalamus
Increases hunger
Ghrelin increase
StomachIncreases hunger
Insulin increase
PancreasIncreases hunger
Leptin increase
Fat cellsDecreases hunger
PPY increaseDigestive tract
Decreases hunger
207
Motivation-Hunger
Set Point the point at which an individual’s
“weight thermostat” is supposedly set when the body falls below this weight,
an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight
Basal Metabolic Rate body’s base rate of energy expenditure
208
Sexual Motivation
Module 27
209
Motivation at Work
Module 28
210
Industrial-Organizational (I/O) Psychology Overview
Applies psychological principles to the workplace.
1. Personnel Psychology: Studies the principles of selecting and evaluating workers.
2. Organizational Psychology: Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.
3. Human Factors Psychology: Explores how machines and environments can be designed to fit our natural perception.
211
Sources of Achievement Motivation
Why does one person become more motivated to achieve than another? Parents and teachers have an influence on the roots of motivation.Emotional roots: learning to associate achievement with positive emotions.
Cognitive roots: learning to attribute achievements to one’s own competence, thus raising expectations of oneself.
212
Setting Specific, Challenging Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially
if there is feedback such as progress reports.
213
Theories and Physiology of
Emotion
Module 29
214
James-Lange Theory
James-Lange Theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience.
215
Cannon-Bard Theory
Proposed that an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal take place simultaneously.
216
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
Our physiology and cognitions create emotions.
Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label.
Two factory theory on the psych files 24:17
217Figure 13.1 Theories of emotionMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers
218
Expressing and Experiencing
Emotion
Module 30
219
Culture and Emotional Expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did
fairly well at recognizing them (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989).
Elkm
an & M
atsumoto, Japanese and
Caucasian F
acial Expression of E
motion
220
Venting anger through action or fantasy ----achieves an emotional release or “catharsis.”
Opposing Theory-- Expressing anger breeds more anger, and
through reinforcement it is habit-forming.
Catharsis Hypothesis
221
Stress and Illness
Module 31
222
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
According to Selye, a stress response to any kind ofstimulation is similar. The stressed individual goes
through three phases.
EPA
/ Yur
i Koc
hetk
ov/ L
ando
v
223
Stress and the HeartStress that leads to elevated blood pressure may
result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle.
Plaque incoronary
artery
Arteryclogged
224
Personality Types
Type A is a term used for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and
anger-prone people. Type B refers to easygoing, relaxed people (Friedman and Rosenman, 1974).
Type A personalities are more likely to developcoronary heart disease.
225
Stress and Colds
People with the highest life stress scores were also the most vulnerable when
exposed to an experimental cold virus.
226
Promoting Health
Module 32
227
Promoting Health Biofeedback
An electronic technique that enables a person to control physiological responses that are normally involuntary blood pressure muscle tension
228228
The Psychoanalytic Perspective
Module 33
Your conscious life, in short, is nothing but an elaborate post-hoc rationalization of things you really
do for other reasons.Ramachandran in A Brief Tour of Human
Consciousness
229229
Dream AnalysisAnother method to analyze the
unconscious mind is through interpreting manifest and latent contents of dreams.
230230
Id, Ego and Superego
The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive
drives, operating on the pleasure principle,
demanding immediate gratification.
The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the
demands of the id and superego.
The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
231231
Defense Mechanisms
3. Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex.
4. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
232232
Assessing Unconscious Processes
Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a
psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind.
233
The Humanistic Perspective
Module 34
234
Humanistic PerspectiveFocuses on mental capabilities that set
humans apart; self awareness, creativity, planning, decision making, responsibility.
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
Carl Rogers(1902-1987)
http
://ww
w.sh
ip.e
du
Mnemonic
CRAM
Carl
Rodgers
Abraham
Maslow
235
Self-Actualizing PersonMaslow proposed
that we as individuals are motivated by a
hierarchy of needs. Beginning
with physiological
needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization
—fulfilling our potential.
http
://ww
w.sh
ip.e
du
236
Person-Centered Perspective
Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self-actualization tendencies. He said that
Unconditional Positive Regard is an attitude of acceptance of others despite their failings.
Michael R
ougier/ Life Magazine ©
Tim
e Warner, Inc.
237
Assessing the Self
All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.
In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close
the individual had a positive self-concept.
238
Contemporary Research on Personality
Module 35
239
The Trait Perspective
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically
used of all personality tests originally developed to identify emotional
disorders (still considered its most appropriate use)
now used for many other screening purposes
240
Evaluating the Trait Perspective
The Person-Situation Controversy
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the
resulting behavior in various situations is different.
Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior.
241
Social-Cognitive Perspective
In his social-cognitive theory Albert Bandura
(1999; 2006) sees personality as shaped by
the ways in which thoughts, behavior, and the environment interact
and influence one another.
Albert Bandura
242
Personal Control
External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces
beyond our personal control determine our fate.
Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate.
Self efficacy: learned expectations about probability of success
243
Learned HelplessnessWhen unable/unwilling to avoid repeated
adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness.
Low self efficacy
244
Introduction to
Psychological
Disorders
Module 36
245
Defining Psychological Disorders
Mental health workers view psychological disorders as persistently harmful thoughts, feelings, and actions.
When behavior is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional psychiatrists and psychologists
label it as disordered (Comer, 2004).
246
Deviant, Distressful & Dysfunctional
1.Deviant behavior in one culture may be considered normal, while in others it may lead to arrest.
2.Deviant behavior must accompany distress.
3. If a behavior is dysfunctional it is clearly a disorder.
Carol B
eckwith
Woodabe clip at youtube
247
Goals of DSM
1. Describe (400) disorders.2. Determine how prevalent the
disorder is.
Disorders outlined by DSM-IV are reliable. Therefore, diagnoses by different professionals are similar.
Others criticize DSM-IV for “putting any kind of behavior within the compass of psychiatry.”
248
Anxiety, Dissociative, Somatoform
and Personality Disorders
Module 37
249
Anxiety Disorders
Feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety.
1. Generalized anxiety disorder2. Panic disorder3. Phobias4. Obsessive-compulsive disorder5. Post-traumatic stress disorder
250
Panic Disorder
Minutes-long episodes of intense dread which may include feelings of terror, chest
pains, choking, or other frightening sensations.
Anxiety is a component of both disorders. It occurs more in the panic disorder, making
people avoid situations that cause it. link
Symptoms
251
Phobias
Marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that disrupts behavior.
252
Kinds of Phobias
Phobia of blood.Hemophobia
Phobia of closed spaces Link .
Claustrophobia
Phobia of heights link.Acrophobia
Phobia of open places.Agoraphobia
Arachnophobia at National Geographic Link
253
Obsessive-Compulsive DisorderPersistence of repetitive thoughts (obsessions)
and urges to engage in repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that cause distress. Clip
254
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD):
1. Haunting memories
2. Nightmares3. Social withdrawal
4. Jumpy anxiety
5. Sleep problems
Bettmann/ Corbis
Psychology 7e in Modules 255
Somatoform Disorders• Psychological problems in which there are
symptoms of a physical disorder without a physical cause.
256
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, formerly
called multiple personality disorder. Link
Chris Sizemore (DID)Lois Bernstein/ Gamma Liason
257
Personality DisordersPersonality disorders are characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns
that impair social functioning. Link 58:55
258
Antisocial Personality DisorderA disorder in which the person (usually men) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends
and family members.Link 6:29
Formerly, this person was called a sociopath or psychopath.
259
Mood Disorders
Module 38
260
Major Depressive Disorder
Major depressive disorder occurs when signs of depression last two weeks or more and are
not caused by drugs or medical conditions.
1. Lethargy and fatigue2. Feelings of worthlessness3. Loss of interest in family &
friends4. Loss of interest in activities
Signs include:
261
Pharmacology
• Bipolar disorders most effectively treated with tricyclic antidepressants and Lithium Carbonate
• Lithium serves as a mood stabilizer
262
Social-Cognitive Perspective
The social-cognitive perspective suggests that depression arises partly from self-defeating
beliefs and negative explanatory styles.
263
Schizophrenia
Module 39
264
Schizophrenia
The literal translation is “split mind” which refers to a split from reality. A group of severe
disorders characterized by the following:
1. Disorganized and delusional thinking.
2. Disturbed perceptions. 3. Inappropriate emotions
and actions.
Link 58:42
265
Disorganized & Delusional Thinking
Many psychologists believe disorganized thoughts occur because of selective attention
failure (fragmented and bizarre thoughts).
266
Disturbed Perceptions
A schizophrenic person may perceive things that are not there (hallucinations). Most such hallucinations are auditory and lesser visual,
somatosensory, olfactory, or gustatory.
L. B
erthold, Untitled. T
he Prinzhorn Collection, U
niversity of Heidelberg
August N
atter, Witches H
ead. The Prinzhorn C
ollection, University of H
eidelberg
Photos of paintings by K
rannert Museum
, University of Illinois at U
rbana-Cham
paign
267
Understanding Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a disease of the brain exhibited by the symptoms of the mind.
Dopamine Overactivity: Researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine
D4 receptors in the brain.
Drugs that block these sites help schizophrenic patients.
Brain Abnormalities
268
Abnormal Brain MorphologySchizophrenia patients may exhibit
morphological changes in the brain like enlargement of fluid-filled ventricles.
Both Photos: C
ourtesy of Daniel R
. Weinberger, M
.D., N
IH-N
IMH
/ NSC
269
The Psychological
Therapies
Module 40
270
Psychoanalysis: Methods
Through free association eventually the patient opens up and reveals his or her
innermost private thoughts.
Developing positive or negative feelings may be transference towards the
therapist.
271
Behavior Therapy
Therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.
To treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists do not delve deeply below the surface looking for inner
causes.
Link AM The Mind
272
Classical Conditioning Techniques
Counterconditioning is a procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that
trigger unwanted behaviors.
It is based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy and aversive
conditioning.
273
Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning procedures enable therapists to use behavior modification,
in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are either
unrewarded or punished.
In institutional settings, therapists may create a token economy in which patients
exchange a token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the desired behavior, for
various privileges or treats.
274
Cognitive Therapy
Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and
our emotional reactions.
275
Group & Family Therapies
Group therapy normally consists of 6-9 people attending a 90-minute session that can help more people and costs less. Clients benefit
from knowing others have similar problems.
© M
ary K
ate
Den
ny/ P
hoto
Ed
it, Inc.
276
Community Psychology
• A movement to minimize or prevent psychological disorders through changes in social systems and through community mental health programs.
• Deinstitutionalization: The release of those with mental disorders from mental hospitals for the purpose of treating them in their home communities
Psychology 7e in Modules
The Biomedical Therapies
Module 42
278
Drug Therapies
Psychopharmacology is the study of drug effects on mind and behavior.
With the advent of drugs, hospitalization in mental institutions has rapidly declined.
Psychology 7e in Modules
Mood-Stabilizing Medications
Lithium Carbonate, a common salt, has been used to stabilize manic
episodes in bipolar disorders.
280
Brain Stimulation
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
ECT is used for severely depressed patients who
do not respond to drugs.
281
Social ThinkingModule 43
282
Focuses in Social Psychology
Social psychology scientifically studies how we think about, influence, and relate
to one another.
“We cannot live for ourselves alone.”
Herman Melville
283
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations
Attribution Theory: Fritz Heider (1958) suggested that we have a tendency to
give causal explanations for
someone’s behavior, often by crediting
either the situation or the person’s disposition.
http://ww
w.stedw
ards.edu
Fritz Heider
284
Fundamental Attribution Error
Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing
the behaviors of others.
We see Joe as quiet, shy, and introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, and extroverted.
285
Small Request – Large Request
In the Korean War, Chinese communists solicited cooperation from US army
prisoners by asking them to carry out small errands. By complying to small errands they
were likely to comply to larger ones.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small
request to comply later with a larger request.
286
Actions Can Affect Attitudes
Why do actions affect attitudes? One explanation is that when our attitudes and
actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance.
Link 4:54
To relieve ourselves of this tension we bring our attitudes closer to our actions (Festinger, 1957).
287
288
Social Influence
Module 44
289
Group Pressure & Conformity
Suggestibility is a subtle type of conformity, adjusting our behavior or thinking toward some group standard.
290
Group Pressure & Conformity
Informational Social Influence: An influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept
others’ opinions about reality. Link 1:58
Willia
m V
an
dive
rt/ Scie
ntifi
c Am
erica
n
291
Conditions that Increase Conformity1. One is made to feel incompetent or
insecure.2. The group has at least three people.
(but no appreciable increase over 3)3. The group is unanimous.4. One admires the group’s status and
attractiveness.5. One has no prior commitment to a
response.6. The group observes one’s behavior.7. One’s culture strongly encourages
respect for a social standard.
292
Milgram’s Study: Results
Milgram on Youtube
293
Diffusion of Responsibility/Bystander
Intervention Effect• The phenomenon where a person is less
likely to take responsibility for an action or inaction when others are present.
• The greater number of bystanders who witness an emergency the less likely it is that any one of them will intervene to help.
• Link 3:36 Bystander effect Link
294
Lessons from the Conformity and Obedience Studies
In both Asch's and Milgram's studies, participants were pressured to choose between following their standards and
being responsive to others.
295
Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others
Social facilitation: Refers to improved
performance on tasks in the presence of
others.
Triplett (1898) noticed cyclists’ race
times were faster when they competed against others than
when they just raced against the clock.
Mich
elle
Ag
nis/ N
YT
Pictu
res
296
Social LoafingThe tendency of an individual in a group
to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested
individually (Latané, 1981).
297
Deindividuation
The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations that foster
arousal and anonymity.
Mob behavior
298
Effects of Group Interaction
Group Polarization enhances a group’s prevailing attitudes
through a discussion.
If a group is like-minded, discussion
strengthens its prevailing opinions
and attitudes.
299
Social Relations
Module 45
300
Influences
Genetic Influences: Animals have been bred for aggressiveness for sport and at
times for research.
Neural Influences: Some centers in the brain, especially the limbic system
(amygdala) and the frontal lobe, are intimately involved with aggression.
301
The Psychology of Attraction
1. Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship.
2. Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases its attraction.
302
Psychology of Attraction
4. Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen.
Similarity breeds content! The more people are alike the more their liking
endures. (Byrne 1971)