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Ch. 28: The Epistemological Ch. 28: The Epistemological Challenge of the Early Attack Challenge of the Early Attack

on “Rate Construction”on “Rate Construction”

Troy DusterTroy Duster

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epistemological crisisepistemological crisis

epistemologyepistemology: the branch of philosophy : the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, addressing questions such as:knowledge, addressing questions such as: What is knowledge? What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? How is knowledge acquired? How do we know what we know?How do we know what we know?

epistemological crisisepistemological crisis occurs when an event occurs when an event forces us to question the foundations of forces us to question the foundations of knowledge, what we accept as trueknowledge, what we accept as true

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2 major perspectives on deviance at 2 major perspectives on deviance at midcentury shared basic assumptions, or midcentury shared basic assumptions, or

epistemological frameworkepistemological framework

1)1) Columbia tradition, shaped by functionalism Columbia tradition, shaped by functionalism and represented by Merton, studied deviance and represented by Merton, studied deviance at at macro- and mid-levelmacro- and mid-level, relying on official , relying on official statistics statistics

2)2) Chicago school focused on Chicago school focused on micro-levelmicro-level, and , and studied deviance/deviants in studied deviance/deviants in natural settings natural settings to to see what deviance was “really like”see what deviance was “really like”

• Both shared accepted existing system of Both shared accepted existing system of classification of devianceclassification of deviance

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In the 60s, researchers began In the 60s, researchers began raising a different set of questionsraising a different set of questions

What are the social processes that explain why What are the social processes that explain why some get classified and others don’t – some get classified and others don’t – even even though both are engaged in the same or similar though both are engaged in the same or similar behavior?behavior?

They studied the social construction of crime They studied the social construction of crime rates, i.e., rates, i.e., rate constructionrate construction observed and recorded how official statistics are observed and recorded how official statistics are

compiled compiled the site of rate construction, where actors make the site of rate construction, where actors make

decisions about what to sort and classify, became the decisions about what to sort and classify, became the focal point of investigationfocal point of investigation

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Gang Leader for a Day: Gang Leader for a Day: A Rogue Sociologist Takes A Rogue Sociologist Takes

to the Streetsto the Streets

Sudhir Venkatesh, Penguin Sudhir Venkatesh, Penguin Books, 2008Books, 2008

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““Chicago School” of SociologyChicago School” of Sociology

Emerged in 1920s – 1930sEmerged in 1920s – 1930s Specialized in urban sociologySpecialized in urban sociology Used ethnographic techniques, immersed selves Used ethnographic techniques, immersed selves

in local settings in local settings Focused on micro-level interactionFocused on micro-level interaction Emphasized individual’s relation to immediate Emphasized individual’s relation to immediate

social environment, small units like family, social environment, small units like family, workplace, neighborhood, local community workplace, neighborhood, local community groupsgroups

Saw sociology leading to social reformSaw sociology leading to social reform

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African Americans in ChicagoAfrican Americans in Chicago

““Great Migrations” from 1910-1960 Great Migrations” from 1910-1960 brought hundreds of thousands of blacks brought hundreds of thousands of blacks from the American South to Chicagofrom the American South to Chicago

White hostility and population growth White hostility and population growth combined to create a black ghetto on the combined to create a black ghetto on the “South Side” of Chicago“South Side” of Chicago

The The “Black Belt” of Chicago was the chain of Chicago was the chain of neighborhoods on the South Side where of neighborhoods on the South Side where 3/4s of the city's African American 3/4s of the city's African American population lived by the mid-20th centurypopulation lived by the mid-20th century

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William Julius WilsonWilliam Julius Wilson

African American Professor of Sociology at U African American Professor of Sociology at U of Chicago (1972 -1996), then Harvard of Chicago (1972 -1996), then Harvard

The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and The Declining Significance of Race: Blacks and Changing American InstitutionsChanging American Institutions (1978) (1978) argues that significance of race is waning, and an African-argues that significance of race is waning, and an African-

American's socioeconomic class is comparatively more American's socioeconomic class is comparatively more important in determining his/her life chancesimportant in determining his/her life chances

The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public PolicyUnderclass, and Public Policy (1987) (1987)

When Work Disappears: The World of the New When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban PoorUrban Poor (1996) (1996)

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The “culture of poverty”The “culture of poverty”

Tried to explain why generations of poor Tried to explain why generations of poor people reproduce same circumstancespeople reproduce same circumstances

1965 “Report on the Negro Family: The Case 1965 “Report on the Negro Family: The Case for National Action” (aka “Moynihan report,” for National Action” (aka “Moynihan report,” after Sen. Moynihan, D, NY) investigated why after Sen. Moynihan, D, NY) investigated why African Americans were not participating in the African Americans were not participating in the “affluent society” and highlighted the following “affluent society” and highlighted the following factors:factors:

Weak family structure: "the fundamental problem is that of family Weak family structure: "the fundamental problem is that of family structure, that the negro family in the urban ghettos is crumbling“structure, that the negro family in the urban ghettos is crumbling“

Rejection of values around self-reliance and workRejection of values around self-reliance and work

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““Culture of poverty” critiqueCulture of poverty” critique

Critics charged thesis “blames the victim” rather Critics charged thesis “blames the victim” rather than “the system” or institutionalized racismthan “the system” or institutionalized racism i.e., deeply embedded, historical racial discrimination i.e., deeply embedded, historical racial discrimination

Critics say problem is not black Critics say problem is not black cultureculture (i.e., (i.e., values & norms) but socioeconomic values & norms) but socioeconomic structuresstructures prefer structuralist theories of povertyprefer structuralist theories of poverty

Today, researchers have re-conceptualized Today, researchers have re-conceptualized culture and look at interaction between “culture” culture and look at interaction between “culture” & “structure” to explain persistent poverty & “structure” to explain persistent poverty (see (see NYTNYT, 10/17/10), 10/17/10)

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The crack epidemicThe crack epidemic

Crack epidemic decimated urban neighborhoods, in Crack epidemic decimated urban neighborhoods, in 1980s, peaking early in the 1990s1980s, peaking early in the 1990s First “crack babies” born in 1984First “crack babies” born in 1984

Most children from the new generation stayed away from Most children from the new generation stayed away from crack and never tried it themselves. Alfred Blumstein, a crack and never tried it themselves. Alfred Blumstein, a criminologist from Carnegie Mellon University, claims 4 criminologist from Carnegie Mellon University, claims 4 factors account for the end of the epidemic:factors account for the end of the epidemic:

1) getting guns out of the hands of kids1) getting guns out of the hands of kids2) shrinking of the crack markets and their institutionalization 2) shrinking of the crack markets and their institutionalization 3) robustness of the economy – “There are jobs for kids now 3) robustness of the economy – “There are jobs for kids now who might otherwise be attracted to dealing" who might otherwise be attracted to dealing" 4) criminal justice response, or as he puts it, "incapacitation 4) criminal justice response, or as he puts it, "incapacitation related to the growth of incarceration"related to the growth of incarceration"

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Crime and mass incarcerationCrime and mass incarceration 1 in 31 adults in US is now in prison or jail or on probation or parole1 in 31 adults in US is now in prison or jail or on probation or parole Correctional control rates are concentrated by gender, race & Correctional control rates are concentrated by gender, race &

geography: geography: 1 in 18 men (5.5%) vs 1 in 89 women (1.1%)1 in 18 men (5.5%) vs 1 in 89 women (1.1%) 1 in 11 black adults (9.2%); 1 in 27 Hispanic adults (3.7%);1 in 45 white 1 in 11 black adults (9.2%); 1 in 27 Hispanic adults (3.7%);1 in 45 white

adults (2.2 %)adults (2.2 %) Rates even higher in some neighborhoods: in one block-group of Rates even higher in some neighborhoods: in one block-group of

Detroit’s East Side, for example, 1 in 7 adult men (14.3%) is under Detroit’s East Side, for example, 1 in 7 adult men (14.3%) is under correctional controlcorrectional control

Georgia, where it’s 1 in 13 adults, leads the top 5 states that also Georgia, where it’s 1 in 13 adults, leads the top 5 states that also include Idaho, Texas, Massachusetts, Ohio and the District of Columbia include Idaho, Texas, Massachusetts, Ohio and the District of Columbia (Pew Center on the States, “1 in 31,” 2008)(Pew Center on the States, “1 in 31,” 2008)

Recent books by Michelle Alexander (Recent books by Michelle Alexander (The New Jim CrowThe New Jim Crow, 2010) , 2010) and Douglas Blackmon (and Douglas Blackmon (Slavery by Another Name, 2008Slavery by Another Name, 2008) argue ) argue mass incarceration of blacks is parallel to enslavement and mass incarceration of blacks is parallel to enslavement and peonage laws peonage laws

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What about blocked access to the What about blocked access to the “American Dream”?“American Dream”?

Or is the problem that Robert Taylor residents Or is the problem that Robert Taylor residents shared American values – the American dream shared American values – the American dream – yet did not have the means to realize them?– yet did not have the means to realize them?

According to Merton’s “anomie theory” (aka According to Merton’s “anomie theory” (aka opportunity theory), when there's a mismatch opportunity theory), when there's a mismatch between culturally accepted goals and the between culturally accepted goals and the legitimate means to achieve them, anomie (or legitimate means to achieve them, anomie (or strain) will resultstrain) will result

One response to anomie is "innovation," where One response to anomie is "innovation," where people strive toward culturally prescribed goals, people strive toward culturally prescribed goals, but by illegitimate (often criminal) means but by illegitimate (often criminal) means Gangs are a typical exampleGangs are a typical example

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Is Black America now “splintering”?Is Black America now “splintering”?

In Disintegration: The Splintering of Black America (2010), Eugene Robinson, carves modern American Robinson, carves modern American blacks into 4 categories:blacks into 4 categories:

TranscendantsTranscendants: wealthy blacks, composed chiefly of : wealthy blacks, composed chiefly of athletes, singers and media darlingsathletes, singers and media darlings

AbandonedAbandoned: a "large minority" of African Americans that : a "large minority" of African Americans that sociologists used to call the “underclass” in the 1980s sociologists used to call the “underclass” in the 1980s

EmergentsEmergents: people who are biracial, children of parents : people who are biracial, children of parents from Africa or the African diaspora, or, like Obama, bothfrom Africa or the African diaspora, or, like Obama, both

Black mainstreamBlack mainstream: a "middle-class majority with a full : a "middle-class majority with a full ownership stake in American society" ownership stake in American society"

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WHAT IS FIELD RESEARCH?WHAT IS FIELD RESEARCH? Field researchers directly observe and Field researchers directly observe and

participate in natural social settingsparticipate in natural social settings Examine social world “up close”Examine social world “up close”

Field researchers work w/ qualitative dataField researchers work w/ qualitative data There are several kinds:There are several kinds:

EthnographyEthnography Participant observationParticipant observation Informal “depth” interviewsInformal “depth” interviews Focus groupsFocus groups

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EthnographyEthnography

ethnoethno: people or folk: people or folk graphygraphy: to describe something: to describe something ethnographyethnography: a detailed description of : a detailed description of

insider meanings and cultural insider meanings and cultural knowledge of living cultures in natural knowledge of living cultures in natural settingssettings

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Studying people in the fieldStudying people in the field

Field researchers use a variety of Field researchers use a variety of techniques, but share common principles:techniques, but share common principles:

naturalismnaturalism: the principle that we learn best : the principle that we learn best by observing ordinary events in natural by observing ordinary events in natural setting, not in a contrived, invented or setting, not in a contrived, invented or researcher-created settingresearcher-created setting

flexibilityflexibility: field research is less structured : field research is less structured than quantitative research and follows a than quantitative research and follows a nonlinear pathnonlinear path

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Robert Taylor Homes,Chicago

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Robert Taylor HomesRobert Taylor Homes

2020

The “gallery,” Robert Taylor HomesThe “gallery,” Robert Taylor Homes

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Entering the field (cont’d)Entering the field (cont’d)

field sitefield site: : any location or set of locations in any location or set of locations in which field research takes place. It usually which field research takes place. It usually has ongoing social interaction and a shared has ongoing social interaction and a shared culture.culture.

gatekeepergatekeeper: someone with the formal or : someone with the formal or informal authority to control access to a field informal authority to control access to a field site.site.

informantinformant: a member in a field site with : a member in a field site with whom a researcher develops a relationship whom a researcher develops a relationship and who tells the researcher many details and who tells the researcher many details about life in the field site.about life in the field site.

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Entering the fieldEntering the field

Presentation of selfPresentation of self consider how you dressconsider how you dress want to fit in but be 'yourself'want to fit in but be 'yourself'

Amount of disclosureAmount of disclosure it’s a continuum: covert to openit’s a continuum: covert to open

Selecting a social roleSelecting a social role formal and informalformal and informal it may take time, role may changeit may take time, role may change can't control it entirely, gender, race, age, etccan't control it entirely, gender, race, age, etc

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Being in the fieldBeing in the field

Learn the ropesLearn the ropes normalizenormalize: how a field researcher helps field site members : how a field researcher helps field site members

redefine social research from unknown and potentially redefine social research from unknown and potentially threatening to something normal, comfortable and familiarthreatening to something normal, comfortable and familiar

Build rapportBuild rapport Negotiate continuouslyNegotiate continuously Decide on a degree of involvementDecide on a degree of involvement

““Degree of involvement” ranges from detachment to “going Degree of involvement” ranges from detachment to “going native”native”

going nativegoing native: when a field researcher drops a professional : when a field researcher drops a professional researcher role and loses all detachment to become fully researcher role and loses all detachment to become fully involved as a full field site memberinvolved as a full field site member