11

Chapter 13Chapter 13Chapter 13Chapter 13

Tools for Tools for

ProcessProcess

ImprovementImprovement

22

The Deming CycleThe Deming Cycle

Plan

DoStudy

Act

Plan Plan (1 of 2)(1 of 2)

1. Define the process: its start, end, and what it does.2. Describe the process: list the key tasks performed

and sequence of steps, people involved, equipment used, environmental conditions, work methods, and materials used.

3. Describe the players: external and internal customers and suppliers, and process operators.

4. Define customer expectations: what the customer wants, when, and where, for both external and internal customers.

5. Determine what historical data are available on process performance, or what data need to be collected to better understand the process.

Plan Plan (2 of 2)(2 of 2)

6.6. Describe theDescribe the perceived problemsperceived problems associated associated with the process; for instance, failure to with the process; for instance, failure to meet customer expectations, excessive meet customer expectations, excessive variation, long cycle times, and so on.variation, long cycle times, and so on.

7.7. Identify the primary causesIdentify the primary causes of the problems of the problems and their impacts on process performance.and their impacts on process performance.

8.8. Develop potential changes or Develop potential changes or solutionssolutions to to the process, and evaluate how these the process, and evaluate how these changes or solutions will address the changes or solutions will address the primary causes.primary causes.

9.9. Select the most promising solution(s).Select the most promising solution(s).

DoDo

1.1. Conduct a pilot study or Conduct a pilot study or experiment to test the impact of experiment to test the impact of the potential solution(s).the potential solution(s).

2.2. Identify measures to understand Identify measures to understand how any changes or solutions how any changes or solutions are successful in addressing the are successful in addressing the perceived problems.perceived problems.

StudyStudy

1.1. Examine the results of the pilot Examine the results of the pilot study or experiment.study or experiment.

2.2. Determine whether process Determine whether process performance has improved.performance has improved.

3.3. Identify further experimentation Identify further experimentation that may be necessary.that may be necessary.

ActAct

1.1. Select the best change or solution.Select the best change or solution.2.2. Develop an implementation plan: Develop an implementation plan:

what needs to be done, who should what needs to be done, who should be involved, and when the plan be involved, and when the plan should be accomplished.should be accomplished.

3.3. Standardize the solution, for example, Standardize the solution, for example, by writing new standard operating by writing new standard operating procedures.procedures.

4.4. Establish a process to monitor and Establish a process to monitor and control process performance.control process performance.

Key IdeaKey IdeaDeming CycleDeming Cycle

The Deming cycle focuses on both short-term continuous improvement and long-term organizational learning.

FADEFADE

FocusFocus AnalyzeAnalyze DevelopDevelop ExecuteExecute

1010

Juran’s Breakthrough Juran’s Breakthrough SequenceSequence

Proof of the needProof of the need Project identificationProject identification Organization for breakthroughOrganization for breakthrough Diagnostic journeyDiagnostic journey Remedial journeyRemedial journey Holding the gainsHolding the gains

Creative Problem SolvingCreative Problem Solving(CPS)(CPS)

Mess FindingMess Finding – identify symptoms – identify symptoms Fact FindingFact Finding – gather data; operational – gather data; operational

definitionsdefinitions Problem FindingProblem Finding – find the root cause – find the root cause Idea FindingIdea Finding – brainstorming – brainstorming Solution FindingSolution Finding – evaluate ideas and – evaluate ideas and

proposalsproposals ImplementationImplementation – make the solution – make the solution

workwork

Key IdeaKey IdeaApproaches to Problem SolvingApproaches to Problem Solving

How one approaches problem solving is not as critical as doing it in a systematic fashion, whether one uses the Deming cycle, FADE, Juran’s approach, CPS, or some hybrid variation.

The Seven QC ToolsThe Seven QC Tools

1.1. FlowchartsFlowcharts2.2. Check sheetsCheck sheets3.3. HistogramsHistograms4.4. Cause-and-effect diagramsCause-and-effect diagrams5.5. Pareto diagramsPareto diagrams6.6. Scatter diagramsScatter diagrams7.7. Control chartsControl charts

Key IdeaKey IdeaFlowchartsFlowcharts

A flowchart or process map identifies the sequence of activities or the flow of materials and information in a process. Flowcharts help the people involved in the process understand it much better and more objectively by providing a picture of the steps needed to accomplish a task.

FlowchartsFlowcharts

Shows unexpected complexity, Shows unexpected complexity, problem areas, redundancy, problem areas, redundancy, unnecessary loops, and where unnecessary loops, and where simplification may be possiblesimplification may be possible

Compares and contrasts actual versus Compares and contrasts actual versus ideal flow of a processideal flow of a process

Allows a team to reach agreement on Allows a team to reach agreement on process steps and identify activities process steps and identify activities that may impact performancethat may impact performance

Serves as a training toolServes as a training tool

Seven Questions to AskSeven Questions to Ask

Are the steps in the process arranged in Are the steps in the process arranged in logical sequence?logical sequence?

Do all steps add value?Do all steps add value? Are capacities of each step in balance? Are capacities of each step in balance?

Any bottleneck?Any bottleneck? What skills, equipment, and tools are What skills, equipment, and tools are

required?required? Where errors might occur?Where errors might occur? Where should quality be measured?Where should quality be measured? Where interactions with customers Where interactions with customers

occur?occur?

Key IdeaKey IdeaRun ChartsRun Charts

Run charts show the performance and the variation of a process or some quality or productivity indicator over time in a graphical fashion that is easy to understand and interpret. They also identify process changes and trends over time and show the effects of corrective actions.

Run ChartRun Chart

Monitors performance of one or more Monitors performance of one or more processes over time to detect trends, processes over time to detect trends, shifts, or cyclesshifts, or cycles

Allows a team to compare performance Allows a team to compare performance before and after implementation of a before and after implementation of a solution to measure its impactsolution to measure its impact

Focuses attention on truly vital changes Focuses attention on truly vital changes in the processin the process

* * * * *

* *

Control ChartControl Chart

Focuses attention on detecting and Focuses attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over timemonitoring process variation over time

Distinguishes special from common Distinguishes special from common causes of variationcauses of variation

Serves as a tool for on-going controlServes as a tool for on-going control Provides a common language for Provides a common language for

discussion process performancediscussion process performance

* * * * *

* *

Key IdeaKey IdeaCheck SheetsCheck Sheets

Check sheets are special types of data collection forms in which the results may be interpreted on the form directly without additional processing.

Check SheetCheck Sheet

Creates easy-to-understand data Creates easy-to-understand data Builds, with each observation, a Builds, with each observation, a

clearer picture of the factsclearer picture of the facts Forces agreement on the definition Forces agreement on the definition

of each condition or event of of each condition or event of interestinterest

Makes patterns in the data become Makes patterns in the data become obvious quicklyobvious quickly

xx xxxxxx x

Key IdeaKey IdeaHistogramsHistograms

Histograms provide clues about the characteristics of the parent population from which a sample is taken. Patterns that would be difficult to see in an ordinary table of numbers become apparent.

HistogramHistogram

Displays large amounts of data that are Displays large amounts of data that are difficult to interpret in tabular formdifficult to interpret in tabular form

Shows centering, variation, and shapeShows centering, variation, and shape Illustrates the underlying distribution of Illustrates the underlying distribution of

the datathe data Provides useful information for Provides useful information for

predicting future performancepredicting future performance Helps to answer “Is the process Helps to answer “Is the process

capable of meeting requirements?capable of meeting requirements?

Key IdeaKey IdeaPareto DiagramPareto Diagram

A Pareto distribution is one in which the characteristics observed are ordered from largest frequency to smallest. A Pareto diagram is a histogram of the data from the largest frequency to the smallest.

Pareto DiagramPareto Diagram

Helps a team focus on causes that Helps a team focus on causes that have the greatest impacthave the greatest impact

Displays the relative importance of Displays the relative importance of problems in a simple visual formatproblems in a simple visual format

Helps prevent “shifting the problem” Helps prevent “shifting the problem” where the solution removes some where the solution removes some causes but worsens otherscauses but worsens others

Key IdeaKey IdeaCause-and-Effect DiagramCause-and-Effect Diagram

A cause-and-effect diagram is a simple graphical method for presenting a chain of causes and effects and for sorting out causes and organizing relationships between variables.

Cause and Effect Cause and Effect DiagramDiagram

Enables a team to focus on the content of Enables a team to focus on the content of a problem, not on the history of the a problem, not on the history of the problem or differing personal interests of problem or differing personal interests of team membersteam members

Creates a snapshot of collective knowledge Creates a snapshot of collective knowledge and consensus of a team; builds support and consensus of a team; builds support for solutionsfor solutions

Focuses the team on causes, not Focuses the team on causes, not symptomssymptoms Effect

Cause

Scatter DiagramScatter Diagram

Supplies the data to confirm a Supplies the data to confirm a hypothesis that two variables are hypothesis that two variables are relatedrelated

Provides both a visual and statistical Provides both a visual and statistical means to test the strength of a means to test the strength of a relationshiprelationship

Provides a good follow-up to cause Provides a good follow-up to cause and effect diagramsand effect diagrams

* * ** * *

Other Tools for Process Other Tools for Process ImprovementImprovement

Kaizen BlitzKaizen Blitz Poka-YokePoka-Yoke Process SimulationProcess Simulation

Key IdeaKey IdeaKaizen BlitzKaizen Blitz

A kaizen blitz is an intense and rapid improvement process in which a team or a department throws all its resources into an improvement project over a short time period, as opposed to traditional kaizen applications, which are performed on a part-time basis.

3535

Poka-Yoke (Mistake-Poka-Yoke (Mistake-Proofing) Proofing)

An approach for mistake-proofing An approach for mistake-proofing processes using automatic devices or processes using automatic devices or methods to avoid simple human or methods to avoid simple human or machine error, such as forgetfulness, machine error, such as forgetfulness, misunderstanding, errors in misunderstanding, errors in identification, lack of experience, identification, lack of experience, absentmindedness, delays, or absentmindedness, delays, or malfunctionsmalfunctions

Three Levels of Mistake-Three Levels of Mistake-ProofingProofing Design potential errors out of the product

or process – Eliminates any possibility that the error or defect might occur

Identify potential defects and stopping a process before the defect is produced – Requires time to stop a process and take corrective action.

Find defects that enter or leave a process – Eliminates wasted resources that would add value to nonconforming work, but clearly results in scrap or rework.

Common Poka-Yoke Examples Common Poka-Yoke Examples (from John Grout’s Poka-Yoke Web (from John Grout’s Poka-Yoke Web Page)Page)

Key IdeaKey IdeaProcess SimulationProcess Simulation

Process simulation is an approach to building a logical model of a real process, and experimenting with the model to obtain insight about the behavior of the process or to evaluate the impact of changes in assumptions or potential improvements to it.

Engaging the Workforce Engaging the Workforce in Process Improvementin Process Improvement

Technical skillsTechnical skills Shared visionShared vision Behavioral skillsBehavioral skills

Key IdeaKey IdeaEngaging the WorkforceEngaging the Workforce

Compared to the technical tools for gathering and analyzing data, the “soft skills”—those that involve people—such as project management and team facilitation, are more difficult to teach and learn.

Skills for Team LeadersSkills for Team Leaders

Conflict management and resolutionConflict management and resolution Team managementTeam management Leadership skillsLeadership skills Decision makingDecision making CommunicationCommunication NegotiationNegotiation Cross-cultural trainingCross-cultural training

Skills for Team MembersSkills for Team Members

Effective meetingsEffective meetings Shared decision makingShared decision making

Rules for Effective Rules for Effective MeetingsMeetings

Use agendas.Use agendas. Have a facilitator.Have a facilitator. Take minutes.Take minutes. Draft the next agenda.Draft the next agenda. Evaluate the meetings.Evaluate the meetings. Adhere to the “100-mile” rule.Adhere to the “100-mile” rule.

Variables Check Sheet for Length of Logs in a Sample of Variables Check Sheet for Length of Logs in a Sample of 95 Trees95 Trees

400 but under 400 but under 700700

99

Specification Specification =700=700

700 but under 700 but under 10001000

88

1000 but under 1000 but under 13001300

2020

1300 but under 1300 but under 16001600

3535

1600 but under 1600 but under 19001900

1818

Specification=19Specification=190000

1900 but under 1900 but under 22002200

55

(c) Bar Two(c) Bar Two

0

15

30

45

60

68 100.0

98.592.788.3

82.4

41.2

Num

ber

or d

efec

tive

car

ds d

ue to

maj

or c

ause

s

Tra

nspo

sed

num

bers

Wro

ng

Cha

ract

er

War

ped

Car

d

Off

-pun

ched

ca

rd

Dat

a to

o li

ght

on c

ard

Tor

n ca

rd

Ille

gibl

e so

urce

do

cum

ent

Cum

ulat

ive

perc

ent o

f m

ajor

cau

ses

of

defe

ctiv

e ca

rds

Cause-and-Effect Diagram for Cause-and-Effect Diagram for Airline Ticket ErrorsAirline Ticket Errors

AirlineTicketErrors

Material(Ticket Stock)

Method(printing)

Personnel Machine

Age Density

Carbon

Paper

Age

Type Frequency

Maintenance

Tension adjustment

Print quality

Quality

Speed

Supervision

AbilityAttention to detail

Training

SCATTER DIAGRAMSSCATTER DIAGRAMSVarious plot patterns in scatter Various plot patterns in scatter diagramsdiagrams

y y y

y y

x x x

x x

Positive correlation Positive correlation may be present

No correlation

Negative correlation may be present

Negative correlation